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LSAT OTHER SECTIONSq3w4567890-=098745q1

Terms in this set (26)

Words or phrases usually followed by the conclusion:
1. consequently
2. therefore
3. as a result
4. so
5. clearly
6. it follows that
7. accordingly
8. we may conclude
9. it entails
10. hence
11. thus
12. we may infer that
13. it must be that
14. it implies that
15. that is why
Words or phrases usually followed by premise(s):
1. given that
2. seeing that
3. for the reason that
4. owing to
5. as indicated by
6. after all
7. on the grounds that
Words or phrases that are usually followed by premise(s) but [and] contain the conclusion:
1. for
2. since
3. because
Sub-conclusion/major premise
Sometimes arguments get a little complicated and there is more than one conclusion. But only one of them is the main conclusion and the rest are just sub-conclusions, otherwise known as major premises. We'll see some examples of these.
Context v. argument
It's always helpful to figure out what the context or background information is versus what the author's argument is. Sometimes context is just background information. Sometimes context is actually some other person's argument. If it is someone else's argument, you also have to figure out what the premises and conclusions are in the other person's argument.

-Terms to look out for that indicate a turn that is usually context (can be before or after, use logic)
But
Although
However
Some {people say}
Three parts of grammar
Subject
Predicate (verb relating to subject)
Details
Referential phrase
a word or phrase that stands in for another word or phrase that appears somewhere in the surrounding text
Comparative statements
Step 1. Identify the "than".

Step 2. Identify the two things

Step 3. Identify the quality/characteristics of the two things (ig which is "sweeter" or "smarter")

Step 4. Declare a winner
General Approach to LR
1. Take a few seconds to identify question stem + read the stimulus.

2. Determine if it is an argument or not?
-If YES, then identify conclusion, premises, the context, and evaluate for assumptions made.
-If NO, then piece together info, anticipate the inference.

3. Anticipate correct answer choice.

4. Scan and eliminate as many as possible.

5. Decide between remaining answers.
JY Tips
-In a convoluted long passage, the end would most likely not be the conclusion the answer is looking for. [trap]

-main point also means conclusion

-missing or sufficient assumption is the same missing premise
LR Most strongly supported questions
The answer is the conclusion and the passage is ONLY premise
LR Assumptions
-Assumptions are missing premises
-every weakening question is attacking the support and NOT THE PREMISE OR CONCLUSION
LR Must be true (validity)
-forms 1-3
-A -> B
(all A's are B's)

-B/ -> A/
(Not B are Not A's too)

A->B->C
(then A-> C)
Existential quantifier
-Involves intersectional relationships, overlapping, which are usually indicated by some most or all.

-No contrapositives

INDICATORS

1. some and many
*Absolutely means at least 1, but can also go up to 100%

Example, some dogs are cute
translation- d some c

2. most
* 51-100
*most pandas like to eat bamboo
translation- p (most->) eb

3. few
*few dogs are evil
1. Most dogs are not evil (and some dogs are evil)
*0-49

translation- d some e AND do (most->) /e

4. all
all dogs are friendly
*100
*All dogs are friendly also implies most dogs are friendly and also implies some dogs are friendly

translation- all d -> most d -> some d
Existential quantifier *negate statements
opposite of some = none (0) example: D some B turns to D -> /B

opposite of all = some not
example: D -> B turns into D some /B or you can be a D and not B

opposite of most= *no logical opposite. Just put not (D most B)
*0-1/2
LR Must be true (validity)
-forms 4-9
1. Premise A -> B -> C,
therefore A -> C

2. Some dogs are cute. All cute things are lovable. Therefore, some dogs are lovable.

Premise: A some B, B -> C, therefore A some C

*same but flipped: B some A, B -> C, Therefore A some C
*you can flip "somes"

Same but written form: Some A's are B's. All B's are C's. Therefore, Some A's are C's

3. A most B, B-> C
Therefore A most C

4. Premise: A some B, B -> C, therefore A some C

*same but flipped: B some A, B -> C, Therefore A some C
*you can flip "somes"

5. A most B, B-> C
Therefore A most C

6. A -> C, A-> B, therefore B some C


7. A -> B, A some C, therefore B some C

8. A -> B, A most C, B some C

9. A most B, A most C, B some C
Invalid Argument forms
*invalid means could be false

1. A -> B
therefore B is A

A -> B, John is a -> B
Therefore John is an ->A

2. A -> B
Therefore A/ is B/

A->B. John is not A,
Therefore is not B

3. A -> B, B some C
Therefore, A some C

4. A -> B, B most C,
Therefore, A most C

5. A some B, B some C,
Therefore A some C

6. A most B, B most C,
Therefore, A most or some C

7. A some C, B some C,
Therefore, A some C
SUFFICIENT ASSUMPTION (SA)
*tips
*line up your premises OR even your premises to your conclusion
eg.

X -> U
/X

------
Y/

Turn premise into

U/->X/
/X


Line up your premise with conclusion

/T -> B
/U

-------
T

into

/B -> T
/U

--------
T
SUFFICIENT ASSUMPTION (SA)
*tips
-look for contrapositives in answer choices

-G -m-> F

----------
G -s- C

*can use most to infer some so the likely link is

G -m ->F -> C
where we infer G -m- C which also means G -s- C
SUFFICIENT ASSUMPTION (SA) FORM WHEN FINDING ANSWER
Premise + Correct Answer Choice = conclusion
JY Tips for identifying question types
MUST BE TRUE = MOST STRONGLY SUPPORTED,

SUFFICIENT ASSUMPTION = PSUEDO ASSUMPTION (PRINCIPLE IN QUESTION)

EXAMPLES ARE PREMISES
Identifying question stem and what to do
-Main Point; find the conclusion

Key words: most accurately expresses the main conclusion

-Most strongly supported; Similar to inference or must be true; Answer, look for a VALIDITY (MOST FEW YADA YADA) conclusion

Key words: most strongly supported, inferred, logically follows

-Strengthen; take the existing premises and make them more relevant

Key words: statements follows logically from the statements

following, if true, lends the most support to the psychologist's conclusion?

-Weaken; take the existing premises and make them less relevant

Key words: logically strongest counter

-Sufficient assumption: Premise + Correct Answer Choice = conclusion

Keywords: conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument?

Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the advice columnist's argument?

Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion of the therapist's argument to be properly inferred?

-The critic's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

-Necessary assumption; identify the necessary assumption that the argument has made (the necessary gap you must find between premises and conclusion)

Key words:

-Argument Part:

Key words:
Method of Reasoning
-argument by analogy

-general principle: "all apples are fruits"

-appeals to popular opinion: "seeing people to yawn causes you to yawn" is what most people believe.

-it distinguishes facts from value judgments: fact its raining outside, value judgment good for you? depends are you trying to keep dry? grow crops?

-draws inference from general principle and a set of fact: all apples are fruits so heres an apple so it must be a fruit
Common Argument Flaws
1.Attacking the source of the argument

2.Uses terms unclearly/equivocation

3.Analogies that really aren't analogous enough

4.Appealing to authority in an area outside their expertise

5.Causation confusions

6.Circular reasoning

7.Confusing necessary and sufficient conditions

8.False dichotomy

9.Confusing probability for certainty

10.Confusing "is" for "ought"
Common Argument Flaws
11. Percentages v. quantity

12. Surveys and samplings to reach a general conclusion

13.Hasty generalization

14. Experiments to reach a general conclusion

15. Your argument fails therefore the opposite of your conclusion must be true

16. Relative v. absolute

17. Confusing one possible solution for the only solution

18. Red herring

19. Tradition fallacy and novelty fallacy

20.Confusing part v. whole

21. Beliefs v. facts
Flaw descriptive weakening
1) Is it descriptively accurate? 2) Does it describe the flaw
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