Biology

Terms in this set (486)

Scientific question

Questions that can be answered by using experiments and factual reasoning.

The study of living organisms and how they function.

Scientific Method

A method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

1st part of the scientific method

experimental design

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different conditions (or IV groups) in an experiment.

factors that are kept constant or unchanging.

The process of studying of something to gain information.

A conclusion made up of facts and inferring knowledge.

The final ending or idea of a process

A statement about the hypothesis

To or estimate by expanding know information

An assumption based on limited information or something that hasn't yet been proved

something thats unchanging

qualitative observations

detailed examination with your senses only

quantitative observations

measuring something with numbers

Balancing human or any living organisms

The chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism that are necessary for the maintenance of life

The genetic transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring.

Golgi apparatus

packages proteins from the ER and materials and sends them to other parts of the cell

network or tubular membranes within the cytoplasm of the cell with a smooth surface; functions in a variety of different metabolic processes such as synthesis of lipids, oils, phospholipid and steroids; process drugs, alcohol, and store calcium ions

network of tubular membanes within the cytoplasm of the cell with a rough surface (ribosomes are attached to it); helps the ribosomes make proteins, such as insulin

tiny structures within the cell that carry out specific functions

plasma membrane

forms a flexible boundary between the living cell and its surroundings; made if phospholipids

oval-shaped organelle that contains DNA and controls much of the cell's activities by directing protein synthesis

actin filaments; solid rods of globular proteins

straight, hollow tubes used for transportation; composed of globular proteins

carries out cellular respiration; rod-shaped organelle that makes energy for the cell to function with; converts the energy stored in food to energy the cell can use (ATP); "powerhouse" of cell

nuclear subdomain that assembles ribosomal subunits in eukaryotic cells; makes rRNA to form the subunits of ribosomes, which then exit to the cytoplasm

complex of DNA and proteins that form within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells; directs the cells' functions

sac-like organelle that holds water, food and organisms; can also store waste products until removed

green structure that captures energy from sunlight and changes it to energy that cells can use in making food.

plant, bacteria or archea cell

animal cell with nucleus

small grain-shaped organelle that produces proteins

thin, flexible barrier that surrounds the cell and controls what goes in and out; found in animal cells

the thick fluid region of a cell inside the membrane or next to the nucleus

membrane-enclosed sac of digestive enzymes; contains chemicals that break down bigger food particles so they can be used in the cell; also break down used cell parts. The cell's "recycling center".

rigid layer surrounding the cells of plants

made of many cells

single-celled organism

small set of microtubules arranged in a specific way

phospholipid bilayer

thin membrane of lipid molecules

part of cytoplasm not held by an organelle

the appendages that propel certain cells

extracellular matrix

helps hold cells together in tissues and protects and supports the plasma membrane. Made up of glycoproteins (proteins bonded with carbohydrates)

membrane proteins; they transmit signals between the ECM and cytoskeleton

networks of protein fibers that extend through the cell

all living things are composed of cells and all cells come from other cells

why are cells so small?

smaller cells have more surface area across which to pass oxygen, nutrients and waste materials

a projection from a prokaryotic cell that propels it through its liquid environment

four basic functional groups

1.genetic control (nucleus and ribosomes);
2. mfg, distribution and breakdown of molecules (ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, perioxisomes)
3. energy processing(mitochondria and chloroplasts in plant cells)
4. Structural support, movement and communication between cells (cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, plant cell wall.

cellular metabolism

chemical activities of cells

nuclear envelope

double membrane enclosing the nucleus; controls the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus

messenger RNA that direct protein synthesis

where are ribosomes found?

free-floating in the cytosol, or bound to the rough ER or the nuclear envelope

endomembrane system

A system of membranes that are specific to a eukaryotic cell. Some are physically connected, while others link when vesicles transfer membrane segments between them.

sacs made of membranes

what makes up the endomembrane system?

nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles and the plasma membrane.

how is a secretory protein made?

1. a bound ribosome follows the mRNA instructions to synthesize a polypeptide and this polypeptide is threaded through the cavity of the rough ER; This new protein folds into its 3 dimentional shape;
2. short chains of sugars link to the polypeptide making a glycoprotein molecule;
3. When the molecule is ready for export, it is packaged in a transport vesicle
4. This vesicle buds off from the ER membrane.

What does the Golgi apparatus do?

processes, warehouses and ships (outside and inside cell) ER products

folds in the mitochondria that increase the surface area and therefore its ability to produce ATP

Adenine Triphosphate - main energy source for cellular work

What type of cell is this?

What type of cell is this?

Which of the following is NOT a structure found in human cells:
W) mitochondrion
X) cell wall
Y) lysosome
Z) peroxisome

W) wing of a bat and the arm of a human

Which of the following are homologous structures:
W) wing of a bat and the arm of a human
X) leg of a cat and the wing of a fly
Y) stinger of a bee and the fang of a snake
Z) rattler of a rattle snake and the whistle of a song bird

What organelle functions to isolate a human cell's chromosomes from the cytoplasm?

What is the name of the blood vessels in vertebrate bodies where most of the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs?

Most of the heart is composed of which of the following
types of tissues:
W) epithelial
X) connective
Y) nervous
Z) muscle

In the taxonomical name Homo sapiens, what taxonomical rank does 'sapiens' represent?

What is the basic unit of life?

In what organelle of a plant cell does photosynthesis occur?

In which of the following places would meiosis (cell division) most likely occur in a mammal:
W) skin
X) liver
Y) heart
Z) ovary

Which of the following is the most common source of energy
for brain cells in humans:
W) nucleic acids
X) proteins
Y) glucose
Z) pectins

What physical condition that has reached alarming proportions in the U.S. population is most closely correlated with type II diabetes?

What is the scientific name of the human windpipe?

W) have no known function in their present owners

Vestigial structures:
W) have no known function in their present owners
X) function in an analogous fashion in species
Y) evolve homologously until functional
Z) control nervous system functions

Which of the following is the region of the body where the thyroid gland is located:
W) neck
X) abdomen
Y) brain
Z) arm pit

It is generally believed that most of the oxygen in the air on Earth today came from what general biological process:

What is the most common term for the biological polymer found in chromosomes that stores genetic information?

The spontaneous movement of molecules through a semi-permeable membrane in order to create equilibrium.

These structures are located inside of a cell's...

Sets of organs in our bodies that do the work to keep us healthy and alive.

Tiniest part of all living and non-living things.

Small part of all living things.

Many cells working together.

Made of thousands of cells, connected by several body systems to do work to keep our bodies healthy & alive.

Classifications of Living things.

Living things with vertebra, hair or fur, gives birth to babies, feed the babies milk form their bodies & warm blooded.

May or may not fly, with vertebra, lay eggs, have feathers

Land & water animals, no vertebra, most lay eggs some have babies, smooth or rough scaly skin, no legs or arms.

Mostly water animals but can live on land, smooth or rough scaly skin, lay eggs & may have lungs.

Slimy animals, no skin or vertebra & no shells.

Hard body sections & no vertebra.

No vertebra, ears or eyes live underground & slimy.

Have long electric tentacles, soft bodies & no vertebra.

Shells soft bodies, no vertebra &Hard shells.

Gills & fins, cold blooded.

2 - 6 Legs, no vertebra, lay eggs, many eyes.

8 Legs, no vertebra, may have wings, lay eggs.

Mammals but with baby pouch on outside of bodies.

Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy.
products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen

photosynthesis equation(very important)

6CO2 + 6H2O --> light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

A structure in the cells of plants and some other organisms that captures energy from sunlight and uses it to produce food.
main function of chloroplasts is to produce food (glucose)
Chloroplasts contain the pigment, chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs most of the colors in the color spectrum, and reflects only green and yellow wavelengths of light. This is why we see leaves as green or yellow - because these colors are reflected into our eyes.

another name for sugar C6H12O6
three things used for making glucose are sunlight water and carbon dioxide
used for energy and growth

main source of energy

cellular respiration

C6H1206->CO2 + H20+ ENERGY (released)
goal is to create ATP
occurs in all living things

An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur.

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work
the energy is stored in ATP until it is released by the reactions remove a phosphate from ATP
a simple way of remembering it is just that it's just energy

The sum total of all processes in an organism which convert energy and matter from outside sources and use that energy and matter to sustain the organism's life functions.

The sum total of all processes in an organism which use energy and simple chemical building blocks to produce large chemicals and structures necessary for life.

The sum total of all processes in an organism which break down chemicals to produce energy and simple chemical building blocks.

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use the energy of sunlight and simple chemicals to produce their own food.

Organisms that eat only plants.

Organisms that eat only organisms other than plants.

Organisms that eat both plants and other organisms.

Organisms that produce their own food.

Organisms that eat living producers and/or other consumers for food.

Organisms that break down the dead remains of other organisms.

Organisms that are able to make their own food.

Organisms that depend on other organisms for their food.

Special structures that allow living organisms to sense the conditions of their internal or external environment.

Asexual reproduction

Reproduction accomplished by a single organism.

Sexual reproduction

Reproduction that requires two organisms

The process by which physical and biological characteristics are transmitted from the parent (or parents) to the offspring.

An abrupt and marked change in the DNA of an organism compared to that of its parents

An educated guess that attempts to explain an observation or answer a question.

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data.

A theory that has been tested by and is consistent with generations of data.

Living creatures that are too small to see with the naked eye.

The idea that long ago, very simple life forms spontaneously appeared through chemical reactions.

Prokaryotic cell

A cell that has no distinct, membrane-bounded organelles.

Eukaryotic cell

A cell with distinct, membrane-bounded organelles.

A unit of one or more populations of individuals that can reproduce under normal conditions, produce fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated from other such units.

The science of classifying organisms.

Binomial nomenclature

Naming an organism with its genus and species name.

An organism that causes disease.

An organism that feeds of dead matter.

An organism that feeds on a living host.

Aerobic organism

An organism that requires oxygen.

Anaerobic organism

An organism that does not require oxygen.

A state in which members of a population die as quickly as new members are born.

Exponential growth

Population growth that is unhindered because of the abundance of resources for an ever-increasing population.

Logistic growth

Population growth that is controlled by limited resources.

A temporary union of two organisms for the purpose of DNA transfer.

A small, circular section of extra DNA that confers one or more traits to a bacterium and can be reproduced separately from the main bacterial genetic code.

The transfer of a DNA segment from a nonfunctional donor cell to that of a functional recipient cell.

The process in which infection by a virus results in DNA being transferred from one bacterium to another.

The DNA and other essential parts of a bacterium coated with several hard layers.

Organisms from the same species that have markedly different traits.

A temporary, foot-like extension of a cell, used for locomotion or engulfing food.

The region of a eukaryotic cell that contains the cell's main DNA.

A membrane-bounded "sac" within a cell.

The thin, watery cytoplasm near the plasma membrane of some cells.

The dense cytoplasm found in the interior of many cells.

A protozoan that propels itself with a flagellum.

A firm, flexible coating outside the plasma membrane.

An organelle containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

A pigment necessary for photosynthesis.

A light-sensitive region in certain protozoa

A close relationship between two or more species where at least one benefits.

A relationship between two or more organisms of different species where all benefit from the association.

A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.

A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed.

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion.

A reproductive cell with a hard, protective coating.

Tiny organisms that float in the water.

Tiny floating organisms that are either small animals or protozoa.

Tiny floating photosynthetic organisms, primarily algae.

The body of a plant-like organism that is not divided into leaves, roots, or stems.

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms.

A special structure used by an organism to anchor itself.

A colony that uses holdfasts to anchor itself to an object.

Extracellular digestion

Digestion that takes place outside of the cell.

The part of the fungus responsible for extracellular digestion and absorption of the digested food.

A filament of fungal cells.

A hypha that is imbedded in the material on which the fungus grows.

A hypha that is not imbedded in the material upon which the fungus grows.

Specialized aerial hypha that produces spores.

An aerial hypha that asexually reproduces to make more filaments.

A hypha of a parasitic fungus that enters the host's cells, absorbing nutrition directly from the cytoplasm.

A chemical that provides both toughness and flexibility.

A thin covering of tissue.

The anaerobic breakdown of sugars into smaller molecules.

A zygote surrounded by a hard, protective covering.

The result of sexual reproduction when each parent contributes half of the DNA necessary for the offspring.

A chemical secreted by a living organism that kills or reduces the reproduction rate of other organisms.

The basic building blocks of matter.

Anything that has mass and takes up space.

An explanation or representation of something that cannot be seen.

A collection of atoms that all have the same number of protons.

Chemicals that result from atoms linking together.

Physical change

A change that affects the appearance but not the chemical makeup of a substance.

Chemical change

A change that alters the makeup of the elements or molecules of a substance.

One of the three forms--solid, liquid, or gas--which every substance is capable of attaining.

The random motion of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

A measurement of how much solute exists within a certain volume of solvent.

Semipermeable membrane

A membrane that allows some molecules to pass through but does not allow other molecules to pass through.

The tendency of a solvent to travel across a semipermeable membrane into areas of higher solute concentration.

A substance that alters the speed of a chemical reaction but is not used up in the process.

Organic Molecule

A molecule that contains only carbon and any of the following: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and/or phosphorous.

The process by which living organisms produce larger molecules from smaller ones.

Two different molecules that have the same chemical formula.

Monosaccharides

Simple carbohydrates that contain 3 to 10 carbon atoms.

Carbohydrates that are made up of two monosaccharides.

Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides.

Dehydration reaction

A chemical reaction in which molecules combine by removing water.

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water.

Lacking any affinity to water.

A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms.

Unsaturated fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms.

A bond that links amino acids together in a protein.

A strong attraction between hydrogen atoms and certain other atoms (usually oxygen or nitrogen) in specific molecules.

The transport of dissolved substances into cells.

The breakdown of absorbed substances.

The breakdown of food molecules with a release of energy.

The removal of soluble waste materials.

The removal of nonsoluble waste materials.

The release of biosynthesized substances.

Maintaining the status quo.

Producing more cells.

The study of cells.

The thin film between the cell walls of adjacent plant cells.

A rigid structure on the outside of certain cells, usually plant and bacteria cells.

Plasma membrane

The semipermeable membrane between the contents and either the cell wall or the cell's surroundings.

A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended.

Substances in which at least one atom has an imbalance of protons and electrons.

Cytoplasmic streaming

The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents.

The organelles in which nutrients are converted to energy.

The organelle in animal cells responsible for hydrolysis reactions that break down proteins, polysaccharides, disaccharides, and some lipids.

Non-membrane-bounded organelles responsible fore protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic reticulum

An organelle composed of an extensive network of folded membranes that performs several tasks within a cell.

ER that is dotted with ribosomes.

ER that has no ribosomes.

Organelles that store starches or oils.

Organelles that contain pigments used in photosynthesis.

Central vacuole

A large vacuole that rests at the center of most plant cells and is filled with a solution that contains a high concentration of solutes.

Vacuoles that contain the wast products of digestion.

The process by which a cell engulfs foreign substances or other cells.

Phagocytic vacuole

A vacuole that holds the matter which a cell engulfs.

Pinocytic vesicle

Vesicle formed at the plasma membrane to allow the absorption of large molecules.

Secretion vesicle

Vesicle that holds secretion products so that the can be transported to the plasma membrane and released.

The organelles where proteins and lipids are stored and then modified to suit the needs of the cell.

Spiral strands of protein molecules that form a tubelike structure.

Nuclear membrane

A highly-porous membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

Clusters of DNA, RNA, and proteins in the nucleus of a cell.

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement.

Fine, threadlike proteins found in a cell's cytoskeleton.

Intermediate filaments

Threadlike proteins in the cell's cytoskeleton that are roughly twice as thick as microfilaments.

A lipid in which one of the fatty acid molecules has been replaced by a molecule that contains a phosphate group.

Passive transport

Movement of molecules through the plasma membrane according to the dictates of osmosis or diffusion.

Active transport

Movement of molecules through the plasma membrane (typically opposite the dictates of osmosis or diffusion) aided by a process that requires energy.

Isotonic solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is essentially equal to that of the cell which resides in a solution.

Hypertonic solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is greater than that of the cell that resides in the solution.

Collapse of a walled cell's cytoplasm due to a lack of water.

The rupturing of a cell due to excess internal pressure.

Hypotonic solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is less than that of the cell that resides in the solution.

Activation energy

Energy necessary to get a chemical reaction going.

The science that studies how characteristics get passed from parent to offspring.

Genetic factors

The general guideline of traits determined by a person's DNA.

Environmental factors

Those "nonbiological" factors that are involved in a person's surroundings such as the nature of the person's parents, the person's friends, and the person's behavioral choices.

Spiritual factors

The factors in a person's life that are determined by the quality of his or her relationship with God.

A section of DNA that codes for the production of a protein of a portion of protein, thereby causing a trait.

The RNA that performs transcription.

A three-nucleotide base sequence on tRNA.

A sequence of three nucleotide bases on mRNA that refers to a specific amino acid.

DNA coiled around and supported by proteins, found in the nucleus of the cell.

A process of asexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells.

The time interval between cellular reproduction.

A cell ready to begin reproduction, containing duplicated DNA and centrioles.

The region that joins two sister chromatids.

The figure produced when the chomosomes of species during metaphase are arranged according to their homologous pairs.

A cell with chromosomes that come in homologous pairs.

A cell that has only one representative of each chromosome pair.

Diploid number (2n)

The total number of chromosomes in a diploid cell.

Haploid number (n)

the number of homologous pairs in a diploid cell.

The process by which a diploid (2n) cell forms gametes (n).

Haploid cells (n) produced by diploid cells (2n) for the purpose of sexual reproduction.

A non-cellular infectious agent that has two characteristics: (1) It has genetic material (RNA or DNA) inside a protective protein coat. (2) It cannot reproduce on its own.

Specialized proteins that aid in destroying infectious agents.

A weakened or inactive version of a pathogen that stimulates the body's production of antibodies which can aid in destroying the pathogen.

Deoxyriboneucleic acid found mainly in the nucleus

double the chromosomes

neuclic acid base pairs

receives instructions from DNA

process of forming a neucleic acid using a template

uses the codons in mRNA to make a specific amino acid

monomers of amino acid chains

mitosis, meiosis

body cell reproduction and sex cell reproduction

sexual reproduction

2 parents male and female

asexual reproduction

segment of dna that codes for a specific trait

made up of DNA and proteins

Endocrine system

composed of glands that secrete different types of hormone that affect almost every cell, organ and function of your body. It is essential in regulating growth and development, metabolism, as well as reproductive processes and mood.

at the base of the brain; stimulates growth and controls functions of other glands

below the voice box; regulates body metabolism and causes storage of calcium in bones

in the neck; controls the calcium levels in your body, and normals the bone growth

in front of the heart; enables the body to produce certain antibodies

on top of the kidneys; prepares the body for action, controls the heart rate and breathing in times of emergency.

between the kidneys; regulates the blood sugar levels

lower abdomen; androgen and testosterone; control maturation and male characteristics

lower abdomen; estrogen and progesterone; influence female traits and support reproductive function.

state reaches when each part of the body functions in equilibrium with other parts.

the ejaculated fluid containing sperm cells and secretions from the seminal vesicle, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.

shorter term for spermatozoon; male gamete

also called ovum; female gamete

an organism in its early stages of development, especially before it has reaches a distinctively recognizable form.

a process that occurs when the sperm and egg combine to produce an embryo

radiometric dating

a method used to determine the age of rocks using the decay of radioactive isotopes present in rocks.

used to tell the age of organic materials.

homologous structure

perform different functions in the species living in the different environment, or it may gave the same origin but different functions

analogous structure

have similar functions but different origin

divergent evolution

splitting of an ancestral population into two or more subpopulations that are geographically isolated from one another.

convergent evolution

analogous structure of unrelated organisms from different ancestors develop similar function such as butterfly wings and bird wings.

is an increase similarities among species derived from different ancestors as a result of similar adaptation to similar environment.

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time. Who developed three theories: the theory of need, the theory of use and disuse, the theory of acquired characteristics.

states that organisms change in response to their environment

Theory of Use and Disuse

organs not in use will disappear while organs in use will develop.

differences in traits of organisms in a population

Theory of Evolution

states that evolutionary change comes through the production of variation in each generation and differential survival of individuals with different combinations of these variable characters.

the building blocks of protein

the complement of mRNA; triplet code on the tRNA

chromosomal mutations

changes in the chromosomes where parts of the chromosomes are broken and lost during mitosis

each set of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA representing an amino acid or start/stop signal

set of rules that specify to the codons in DNA or RNA that corresponds to the amino acids in proteins

nitrogenous base

is a carbon ring structure that contains one or more atoms of nitrogen. In DNA, Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine.

any change in the DNA sequence

messenger RNA, brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm

ribosomal rna, hold tightly to the mRNA and use its information to assemble amino acids

transfer RNA, a type of RNA that attach the correct amino acid to the protein chain that is being synthesized in the ribosomes.

Recombinant DNA

A form of DNA produced by combining two genetic material from two or more different sources by means of genetic engineering

process of copying DNA sequence into RNA

process of converting information in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids in a protein

accessory pigments

energy absorbing plant pigments other than chlorophyll

all chemical processes that synthesize or break down materials within an organism.

Blood pressure in the arteries during contraction of the ventricles.
Contraction of the heart

occurs when the ventricles are relaxed; the lowest pressure against the walls of an artery

Reflects the force the blood exerts against the walls of the arteries during contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the heart.

function of the blood

Transportation materials to and from cells
Transports nutrients, carries O2, waste products, hormones to their target cells, regulates body temperature, protects against bacteria and viruses

blood components

Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
55% Plasma, 45%-Formed Elements

Liquid portion of blood

red blood cell
Erythrocytes
4.5-5 million

red blood cells

Carry oxygen
Blood cells that carry oxygen from the lungs to the body cells.

hemoglobin function

*transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
*carry oxygen and also CO2 back to the lungs
*transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs

Red blood cells regulated

1. Oxygen deficiency stimulates Erythropoietin (EPO) production by kidneys

White blood count

*Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils
*tests to see what percentage of total white blood cell count is composed of each of the five types of leukocytes

Most abundant white blood cell., The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.- WBC

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

*A type of white blood cell that transforms into macrophages, extends pseudopods, and engulfs huge numbers of microbes over a long period of time
*An agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage.

*What IgE-mediated cell secretes major basic protein and has elevated levels in the blood during asthma and parasitic infections?
*What type of WBC is present in increased numbers during an allergic reaction?

*When performing a WBC differential, which cell has the large, scattered dark blue granules that are darker than the nucleus?
*A circulating leukocyte that produces histamine.

White Blood Count

What is a marker for an infectious disease?
Status of immune system and ability to fight off infection

Platelet function

They play a key role in retention of blood loss by forming a * plug at the site of tears when connective tissue is exposed. Serotonin is released and smooth muscles contract in the vessel walls.
*Blood clotting
- Cause capillary homeostasis by adhering to the inner surface of a vessel and sticking to each other to create a temp. mechanical plu

Platelet function in hemostasis

- Cause capillary homeostasis by adhering to the inner surface of a vessel and sticking to each other to create a temp. mechanical plug

blood cells made

blood cells and bone marrow

*a classification of blood that depends on the type of antigen present on the surface of the red blood cell; A, B, AB, or O
*A, B, AB and O. Type O is the universal donor and AB blood is known as the universal recipient.

*Foreign material that invades the body
*Anything that is foreign to the body and that causes an immune response
*What mobilizes the adaptive defenses and provokes an immune response?

An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response.
Specialized proteins that aid in destroying infectious agents

antigens in blood

Def A,B in blood
macromolecules are foriegn to host organism and trigger an immune response

antibodies in blood

Passive immunity=
When are HIV antibodies detectable in blood?

blood flow thru blood vessels

tissue perfusion

*pumps blood throughout the body
*Blood goes into right atrium from superior vena cava through tricuspid to right ventricle to the pulmonary valve to the pulmonary artery to lungs to pulmonary veins to bicuspid to left atrium to mitral valve to left ventricle to aortic valve to aorta

heart structure

4 chambers: 2 atria (right and left) and 2 ventricles (right and left)

structures within the heart that open and close with the heartbeat to regulate the one-way flow of blood

Endocardium ( inner), myocardium ( middle), and epicardium ( outer)

Double-layered membrane surrounding the heart.

blood flow thru heart

Blood enters from superior and inferior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary semilunar valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, mitral valve, left ventricle, aortic semilunar valve, aorta, rest of body

A complete heartbeat consisting of contraction and relaxation of both atria and both ventricles
the complete cycle of events in the heart from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next

cardiac conduction

a system of specialized muscle tissues that conducts electrical impulses that stimulate the heart to beat

digestive system

*Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.
*Composed of the alimentary canal and accessory structures. Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), large intestine (colon), and anus, Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.
*The system of organs and structures responsible for the digestion of food. The digestive system includes teeth, mouth, esophagus, stomach, small, intestine, large intestine, and colon.

mixture of enzymes and partially-digested food

digestive process

*The process by which the body breaks down foods and either absorbs or excretes them.
*Ingestion➡digestion➡absorption➡egestion
*Mechanical digestion, denaturation of proteins (by acidity), chemical digestion of proteins (by pepsin), intrinsic factor, delivers chyme to small intestine

softens food in the mouth making it easier to swallow; helps break down food into simpler forms; secreted by glands in the mouth

stomach, colon. intestines, anus rectum
*Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum & anal canal
*mouth -> esophagus -> LES -> stomach -> pyloric sphincter -> SI -> ileocecal sphincter -> LI -> rectum -> anus -> anal sphincter

The capability of the GI tract to move material along its length is called
The ability of an organism to move by itself

The large intestine
the largest section of the vertebrate large intestine; functions in water absorption and formation of feces; first, coiled part of large intestine

small intestine structure

The thinner of the two intestine but is much longer. Is highly folded, highly vascular so it can absorb nutrients into the blood
- The small intestine has three main structures— the lining, villi, and microvilli—that absorb most of the nutrients from chyme

Secretions from the stomach lining that contain hydrochloric acid and pepsin, an enzyme that digests protein.

pancreas secretion

Secretes pancreatic juice to break down carbs, fats, and proteins
Secrete pancreatic juices into the cavity and insulin, and glucagon into blood to regulate blood sugar
Secretin - It is secreted from intestinal cells when acidic food from stomach enters small intestine. Secretin promotes secretion of bicarbonates and water from pancreas.

pancreas function

regulates blood sugar (insulin & glucagon)
Secretes pancreatic juice which breaks down all categories of food
produces digestive enzymes for fats, carbs, and proteins

digest fat; excrete waste

respiratory system

A system of organs, functioning in the process of gas exchange between the body and the environment, consisting especially of the nose, nasal passages, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

upper respiratory

consists of the nose, mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, and trachea

lower respiratory

consists of the bronchial tree and lungs

respiratory tract

The passageway that makes breathing possible.
series of branching tubes that conduct air to and from the respiratory zone for gas exchange

upper part of the trachea contains vocal chords - 3 bands of tissue stretched across the opening of trachea

A flap of tissue that seals off the windpipe and prevents food from entering.

Allows air to pass to and from lungs
Air passageway; has cartilage rings to help keep the air passage open as air rushes in; branches into right/left bronchus
The respiratory process begins when air is inhaled through the nose and into the what?

Main organs of the respiratory system
An organ found in air-breathing vertebrates that exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood

The passages that branch from the trachea and direct air into the lungs
Airways in the lungs that lead from the trachea to the bronchioles.

(singular alveolus.) Tiny sacs, with walls only a single cell layer thick found at the end of the respiratory bronchiole tree. Alveoli are the site of gas exchange in the respiratory system.
Terminal air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs.

breathing process

+The diaphragm muscle drops and creates a vacuum; Air rushes into the lungs; The diaphragm muscle contracts and pushes the air out
*inhale through mouth or nose, are is filtered by cilia and mucus in nose, then the air goes to the pharynx, past the epiglottis, and through your larynx and trachea, at the base of the trachea are two tubes called bronchi which branch off into smaller air tubes called bronchioles, then the air reaches tiny sacs called alveoli where gas exchange occurs
*Oxygen goes to the lungs , has a close contact to blood absorbs it and carries it to all body parts. Blood gives up CO2 which is from lungs to air breathed out
*- active process that allows the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract, allowing lungs to expand (diaphragm goes down
*Pharynx > Larynx (voice box) > Trachea (windpipe) > Bronchi > Bronchioles > Alveoli

oxegen transported in blood

carbon dioxide transported in blood

*Carbon dioxide is released from the mitochondri
*diffuses into blood, then to the capillaries, then to the alveoli in the lungs, and exhaled into the atmosphere
*diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveol
Process that moves CO2 from tissues to lungs in 3 forms: bicarbonate, bound to hemoglobin; as carbaminohemoglobin & as dissolved CO2

Brain, nerve cells, spinal cord
*the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
*The bodily system that in vertebrates is made up of the brain and spinal cord, nerves, ganglia, and parts of the receptor organs and that receives and interprets stimuli and transmits impulses to the effector organs.

graded potential

shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire
A local voltage change in a neuron membrane induced by stimulation of a neuron, with strength proportional to the strength of the stimulus and lasting about a millisecond.

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.
Fast, moving change across a neurons membrane, also called an impulse.
the local voltage change across the cell wall as a nerve impulse is transmitted

neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
Chemical messengers that cross the neuromuscular junction (synapse) to transmit electrical impulses from the nerve to the muscle.

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord
A subdivision of the human nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord. Transmits & receives messages to & from the PNS

Peripheral nervous system PNS

peripheral nervous system
*sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
*All parts of the nervous system, excluding the brain and spinal cord, that relay information between the CNS and other parts of body

role of this type of cell is already determined and is not dictated by neighboring cells.
communicate w/ send signals to other neurons and muscles in the body
What is the nervous system composed of?

Impulse conduction is fastest in neurons that are
glia cells that wrap around the axon insulating it. conduct AP more rapidly bc less current lost to extracellular environment

Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.

Central Nervous system protected

Brain and spinal cord

The mass of nerve tissue that is the main control center of the nervous system

Area of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body
Largest part of the brain
Largest part of the brain; coordinates thought, reasoning, movement, and memory, includes the cerebral cortex and the white matter beneath it.

Connection to spinal cord. Filters information flow between peripheral nervous system and the rest of the brain.
the central trunk of the mammalian brain, consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain, and continuing downward to form the spinal cord.

motor control
refines skeletal muscle contractions, role in cognition, language, problem solving, activity occurs subconsciously, composed like cerebrum, grey matter white matter (arbor vitae) grey islands.

thalamus and hypothalamus
A portion of the embryonic forebrain that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland.

cerebrum structure

consisting of 2 hemispheres and olfactory lobes
thought and intelligence and memory

breathing phases

inspiration and expiration

breathing process

*Respiration is the chemical process in which cells exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide to obtain energy, Air is breathed in and diffusion occurs and carbon dioxide is breathed out
*Breathing is controlled by muscles.
*[H+] and [CO2] are too high, medulla oblongata is stimulated > sends impulse to diaphragm and intercostal muscles > diaphragm contracts > ribs move up and out > diaphragm moves down > air rushes in > vice versa for exhalation
• controlled by medula oblongata
*inhale through mouth or nose, are is filtered by cilia and mucus in nose, then the air goes to the pharynx, past the epiglottis, and through your larynx and trachea, at the base of the trachea are two tubes called bronchi which branch off into smaller air tubes called bronchioles, then the air reaches tiny sacs called alveoli where gas exchange occurs

*The space between the two moist membranes that separate the lungs from the thorax (chest cavity). Filled with lubricating fluid.
*airtight space between fold of the pleural membranes; contains watery lubricating fluid that prevents friction between the membranes when they rub together during respiration

MICROORGANISM THAT CAUSES ILLNESS OR DISEASE

PRODUCED BY WBC WHEN IMMUNE SYSTEM DETECTS A PARTICULAR PATHOGEN

Bacteria are living cells and can multiply rapidly. Once inside the body, they release poisons or toxins that make us feel ill.
BACTERIA GET IN BETWEEN CELLS

Viruses can only reproduce inside host cells, and they damage the cell when they do this
VIRUSES GET INTO CELL

DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES

influenza - flu, colds, Measles, mumps, rubella, chicken pox, AIDS

DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA

food poisoning, Cholera, typhoid, whooping cough,
gonorrhoea - a sexually transmitted disease

WHAT ARE BODY'S DEFENCE MECHANISMS?

SKIN, STOMACH ACID, EYELASHES, TEARS, COUGH

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

White blood cells can ingest and destroy pathogens. They can produce antibodies to destroy pathogens

ARE SMALL AMOUNTS OF DEAD / WEAKENED PATHOGENS

MEASLES, MUMPS AND RUBELLA

WIDESPREAD OUTBREAK OF AN INFECTIOUS DISEASE WITHIN A COUNTRY

A DISEASE THAT IS SPREAD RAPIDLY ACROSS MANY COUNTRIES

SYMPTOMS OF AN INFECTION

PAIN, FEVER, RASH, NAUSEA, HEADACHE, COUGHING

SOMETHING THAT DEVIATES FROM NORMAL OR EXPECTED

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

WHAT YOU MEASURE- ON Y AXIS

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

WHAT YOU CHOOSE VALUES FOR- ON Y AXIS

CONTROL VARIABLE

VARIABLES THAT REMAIN CONSTANT OR UNCHANGED

WHITE BLOOD CELLS CAN

-ingest pathogens and destroy them
-produce antibodies to destroy pathogens
-produce antitoxins that neutralise the toxins released by pathogens
white blood cells do not eat the pathogens - they ingest them

The breakdown of dead plant and animal material by fungi, bacteria and other organisms. Requires WOW
W-warmth
O-oxygen
W- water

Neurones that carry information from a sensory nerve cell to a motor nerve cell

NEUROTRANSMITTER

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) consists of

- the brain and spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) consists of

- nerve cells that carry information to or from the CNS. Includes spinal cord and peripheral nerves.

- can detect a change in the environment (stimulus) and produce electrical impulses in response. Sense organs contain groups of receptors that respond to specific stimuli.

-produces a response e.g.muscle contracts to move hand away from stimulus or gland squeezes and releases hormone into blood.

Where two neurones meet, there is a tiny gap called a synapse. Signals cross this gap using chemicals released by a neurone. The chemical diffuses across the gap makes the next neurone transmit an electrical signal.

-a way for the body to automatically and rapidly respond to a stimulus to minimise any further damage to the body.

stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone → effector → response

SENSORY NEURONE

A sensory neurone sends impulses (from a sensory receptor) to a relay neurone in the spinal cord/CNS.

-carry messages from one part of the CNS to another

A motor neurone sends impulses from the spinal cord/CNS to effector (muscle of gland).

a growth defect in cells , a breakdown of the mechanism that controls cell division. Ex. his ___ was caused by smoking.

the change in shape or organisms over time. Ex. a child's ________ is very fast.

the branch of biology that studies the interactions of organisms with one another and with nonliving parts of their environment

sections of chromosomes made of DNA that code for traits. The basic unit of heredity.

the complete genetic material contained in an individual.

the passing of traits from parent to offspring. Ex. scientists know that _____ can increase chances for certain diseases.

a virus that attacks and destroys the human immune system.

interdependence

organisms in a biological community live and interact with other organisms.

a change in the DNA of a gene.

natural selection

process in which organisms with favorable genes are more likely to survive to reproduce. Ex. the idea of ____ ______ was first presented by Charles Darwin.

any living thing; something that meets all criteria of life. Ex. so far, we have not found proof of any living ________ on another planet.

a relative measure of the hydrogen ion concentration within a solution; Latin for "probably hydrogens".

process by which substances are taken into the cell or an organism.

incorporation of materials into the body of an organism.

process by which materials are distributed (moved) throughout the organism.

differentiation

process by which cells become specialized for specific functions.

the breakdown of complex food materials into forms the organism can use. Ex. Going to sleep after eating can be bad for ____.

elimination of indigestible waste.

removal of metabolic waste.

taking in food from the environment.

process by which organisms maintain homeostasis, a stable internal environment.

process by which organisms produce new organisms of their own kind

release of chemical energy from certain nutrients.

chemical combination of simple substances to form complex substances.

nucleic acid polymer that stores genetic information.

the state of both sides are balanced

the process of change that has transformed life on Earth

a system of ideas that explains many related observations and is supported by a large body of evidence acquired through scientific investigation

group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring. Ex. there are thousands of different ______ of butterflies.

the material that everything in the universe is made of, including solids, liquids, and gases

a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions. Ex. carbon is an essential ________ of life.

a substance consisting of 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio. Ex. water is the most common _______ on Earth.

a very small living things. Ex. Although some cause illness or disease, many ______ are harmless.

a very small living thing that causes infectious illnesses. Ex. HIV is the _____ that causes AIDS.

a very simple plant without stems or leaves that grows in or near water.

simple type of plant that has no leaves or flowers and that grows on plants or other surfaces. Ex. mushrooms are a _____.

a gas that has no color or smell, is present in air, and is necessary for most animals and plants to live. Ex. the chemical symbol for _____ is O.

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