Search
Browse
Create
Log in
Sign up
Log in
Sign up
Anatomy Exam 2
STUDY
Flashcards
Learn
Write
Spell
Test
PLAY
Match
Gravity
Terms in this set (268)
fibroblast/Fribrocyte
fibrous connective tissue
chondroblast/Chondrocyte
In cartilage (supportive)
OSteoblast/osteocyte
makes bone (supportive)
Hemocytoblast/erthrocyte, leukocyte, thrombocyte
in blood (fluid)
"blast"
young
Cyte
old
connective tissue __________ and ______________
supports/protects
Matrix
where cells are dispersed
ground substance
large part of matrix, crisscrossed protein fibers, fluid or mineralized as in bone, what cells float in
Adipose tissue
Tissue that stores fat.
3 classifications of connective tissue
connective tissue proper (loose and dense), supportive, and fluid
connective tissue proper
fibrocytes, adipocytes, and mesenchymal cells. Immune cells move in and out of area as needed.
Fibroblast
most abundant cell in connective tissue proper, produce proteins and polysaccharides which become ground substance
Adipocytes
store lipids or surplus energy, brown are metabolically active and white are less active
Mesenchymal cell
multipotent adult stem cell, can be any type of connective tissue
Fibroblasts
Collagen, elastic, reticular
collagen fibers
really thick , really strong, resist stretch (bones and ligaments)
elastic fibers
long and thin, returns to original stretch after stretch, made from protein elastin, appear yellow (skin, lungs, and blood vessels)
reticular fiber
made of same protein as collagen, but remain narrow and arrayed in a branching network, found throughout the body, but most around soft organs, framework for spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
loose connective tissue
areolar, adipose, reticular
Adipose
fat storage cells, large number of capillaries
areolar
little specialization, found in web like pattern
reticular tissue
mesh like supportive framework especially for organs
dense connective tissue
regular and irregular
regular
fibers run parallel for greater strength (ligaments and tendons)
irregular
fibers run in all directions (dermis of the skin)
supportive connective tissue
Cartilage, hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage, bone
cartilage
avascular and bound to ground substance proteins
hyaline cartilage
most common, short dispersed collagen fibers, strong and flexible (in joints, nose, endplates of bone for growth, and trachea)
fibrocarilage
thick bundles of collagen fibers that are better at absorbing shock (knee, jaw, and intervertebral discs)
elastic cartilage
elastic fibers as well as collagen (ear lobes)
bone
-hard dense connective tissue
-rigid extracellular matrix, collagen in a mineralized ground substance of calcium phosphate, highly vascular, cancellous bone is spongier than compact bone
fluid connective tissue
blood and lymph
blood
formed elements come from stem cells in the bone marrow, transport RBC, WBC, platelets, and wastes
Lymph
transport WBC, excess fluid, and fats
membranes
synovial, cutaneous, mucous, serous
synovial membrane
dense irregular connective tissue and areolar tissue, lines the cavity of movable joints, produces synovial fluid for lubrication
cutaneous membrane
stratified squamous keratinized epithelium, areolar, and dense irregular connective tissue, skin covering body
mucous membrane
line body cavities and integral passageways (digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and extratory tracts)
Serous membrane
line cavities that dont open to the outside, covers organs in those cavities, produces a fluid for lubrication (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)
Glands
exocrine, endocrine, merocrine, apocrine, holocrine
exocrine gland
secrete through a duct
endocrine gland
no duct
merocrine
sweat glands all over the body that are active at birth
apocrine
active at puberty, found in axilla and pubic region, secretes organic material which degrades and causes body odor
holocrine
produce oils after puberty, not found in thick skin
What is the largest organ in the body?
skin
What makes up the integumentary system?
skin, hair, nails, glands
3 layers of skin
epidermis (superficial), dermis (middle), and hypodermis (deep)
functions of integumentary system
protection, sensation, temperature regulation, vitamin d production,
what does the skin protect against
nature, chemicals, and microbes
what does sensation do
detects touch, temperature, and pain
what does thermoregualtion do
sweating mechanism to release sodium and water, arterioles constrict in the cold to keep vital organs warm and functioning
Explain Vitamin D synthesis
need UV radiation, may develop rickets without enough sunlight. Vitamin D for calcium and phosphorus absorption as well as general immunity
T/F - the epidermis is keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium
True
how many layers are in the thin layer of skin
4 layers
thin skin....
is more common and mainly has hair follicles and arrector pili muscles
how many layers are in thick skin
5 layers
thick skin is mainly on ....
palms of hands and soles of feet
thick skin....
has lots of sweat glands, no sebaceous glands, more densely packed touch receptors
What does keratin do?
give skin, hair and nails hardness and water resistance
the epidermis is ________
avascular
how many pounds of cells do we loose in our lifetime
about 40 lbs.
three different types of epidermis cells
merkel cells
melanocytes
Langerhans cells
Merkel Cells
touch receptors
melanocytes
produce the pigment melanin to give color to the skin
Langerhans cells
Macrophages for immune functions
stratum basale
-Deepest layer of cells in the epidermis
-Bonds to the basement membrane
-The basal cell is a cuboidal shaped stem cell
-Produces all keratinocytes, goes through mitosis often pushing older cells superficially (30-40 days to move a cell through all layers)
-Contains Merkel cells (stimulating sensory nerve) and melanocytes which produce the pigment melanin (give hair and skin their color and protects against UV radiation damage
stratum spinosum
-Spiny in appearance due to connection with desmosomes
-Interspersed Langerhans Cells that act as macrophages
-Here the keratinocytes from the basal layer begin the synthesis of keratin
-Keratinocytes get pushed up to the next layer by the new cells being produced
-Desmosomes keep keratinocytes together
stratum granulosum
-Has a grainy appearance
-Cells become flatter
-Produces lots of keratin and keratohyaline which forms the lamellar granules
-The organelles disintegrate as cells die and leave behind keratin, keratohyaline, and cell membranes to form the next layers of the epidermis and accessory structures
stratum lucidum
-Smooth and translucent layer found only in the thick skin
-Keratinocytes are dead and flattened
-Cells are full of eleiden which is a protein rich in lipid formed from keratohyaline and gives the lucid appearance and is a barrier against water
stratum corneum
-Most superficial, dry dead layer, water proof surface
-Protect against microbes and protects more delicate deeper cells
-The entire layer gets replaced about every 4 weeks
Skin color is influenced by
melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin
darker skin is from greater or lesser amounts of melanin
greater amounts
melanin protects DNA from what
UV ray damage and the breakdown of folic acid
too much melanin does what
interferes with vitamin D production
what can too much sun do
lead to wrinkles and if it reaches too much of the DNA lead to skin cancer
what are freckles
the irregular collection of melanocytes and moles are large masses of melanocytes
the dermis is the _______ of the integumentary system
core
the dermis contains what
lymph, hair, nerve, sweat glands
what are the 2 layers of the dermis
papillary and reticular
papillary layer
superficial 1/5 of dermis, connects to stratum basale, areolar connective tissue, it contains fibroblasts, few adipocytes, lots of blood vessels, phagocytes, nerve fibers, and touch receptors called Meissner corpuscles along with pain (nociceptors) and thermoreceptors receptors
reticular layer
irregular connective tissue, less vascular, glands, hair follicles, and nerve fibers, collagen fibers provide strength by connecting to papillary layer and hypodermis, has Pacinian corpuscles (vibration and pressure)
which layer connects skin to bones and muscles
hypodermis
hypodermis has well ___________________________ and _________________
vascularized connective areolar tissue and adipose tissue
hair
keratinous filament made of dead cells, found almost everywhere
hair provides what
protection, thermoregulation, sensory input, and communication
hair typically grows how many mm per day
.3mm
why does hair color turn gray
the melanin controls hair color and over time it decreases, so it turns gray or white
3 cycles of hair growth
anagen, catagen, telogen
anagen portion
continuous growth
catagen portion
no growth, follicle shrivels
telogen portion
total resting period
nails
-Nail body is formed on the nail bed
-The nail root is attached to the epidermis at the stratum basale
-The nail is densely packed dead keratinocyte
sweat glands
-Epidermal projections into the dermis to cool the body
-Most are Merocrine (Eccrine) glands
eccrine glands
normal over the body (abundant on hands, feet, and forehead), the sweat is hypotonic
apocrine glands
normal in areas with lots of hair (genitals and arm pits), they additionally release organic compounds that decompose (cause body odor), begin at puberty
sebaceous (holocrine) glands
release oils to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair, they help the skin to be more pliable, most don't start working until puberty
ceruminous glands
in ear canal and produce ear wax
cancer
abnormal cells dividing uncontrollably, 1 in 5 Americans will suffer some sort of skin cancer
basal cell carcinoma
starts in the stratum basale and spread out, eventually growing toward the surface, surgery, freezing, topical ointment
Sqamous Cell Carcinoma
2nd most common and more aggressive, surgery and radiation are both used, keratinocytes of stratum Spinosum affected
melanoma
uncontrolled growth of melanocytes, usually develops from a mole, most fatal skin cancer, surgery and immunotherapy both used
eczema
allergic reaction that presents as dry itchy patches, severe case may bleed. Use moisturizers, corticosteroid creams, or an immunosuppressants
acne
-found with sebaceous glands on the face and back, common at puberty, overproduction of sebum and keratin that blocks hair follicles
-The plug is white, sebum changes to black as it reacts with the air, skin turns red due to inflammation from a bacterial infection
burns
sensitive to dehydration and infection
first degree burns
epidermis burn (sunburn)
second degree burns
into the dermis (normal to blister)
third degree burns
burn through the entire dermis (may destroy nerve endings)
fourth degree burns
into muscle and bones
scars
any cut deeper than the epidermis leads to scar formation, fibroblasts shut wound with collagen rather than regular cellular replacement
keloid
raised scar because collagen formation does not stop
bedsore
reduced blood flow resulting in necrosis, risk for infection
stretch marks
dermis is stretched beyond the limit of its elasticity
callous
stratum basale divide more often due to pressure and friction, it is the body trying to protect itself
cartilage
semi rigid connective tissue for flexibility and smooth surfaces
Functions of the skeletal system
bone
cartilage
support the body (shape)
facilitate movement
protect organs and blood cells
store and release minerals and fat (calcium and phosphate)
production of blood (hematopoiesis)
4 types of bone cells
osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
osteogenic cells
they divide and develope into osteoblasts
osteoblasts
forms new bone, does not divide, it secretes collagen and gets trapped as the collagen calcifies, it matures into and osteocyte
osteocytes
common bone cell, maintain the mineral concentration by secreting enzymes, they do not divide
osteoclasts
responsible for breakdown and re-absorption of bone, they are multi nucleated and originate from white blood cells, use hydrogen and chloride to lower pH and dissolve bone
organic bone
33% collagen (protein) fibers to resist stretching and twisting, ground substance formed of proteoglycans and glycoproteins
inorganic bone
hard matrix of the bone to resist compression, 85% is hydroxyapatite (crystalized calcium phosphate salt) and 15% is flouride, sulfate, potassium, and magnesium
compact bone
80% - microscopic calcified ring around a central canal, blood vessels, nerve, and lymph vessels follow and connect all canals of the bone, waste removal and nutrient transport, in shaft of long bones and covers spongy bone
spongy bone
20% - shaped like a lattice work and not a canal system, some of the spaces will contain the red marrow, in the epiphysis and bones of skull
Osteon
stuctural unit of compact bone elongated cylinder parallel with the length of the bone, has a central opening
Haversian canal
through the center of the osteon, houses blood vessels and nerve fibers, lined with endosteum
volkmanns canal
pendicular to central canal for blood vessels and nerve fibers
lamelle
arrangement of matrix (Concentric, Interstitial, and Circumferential)
osteocytes in bone
spider shaped cells found in lacunae at junctions of lamellae
lacunae
spaces between osteon rings, houses osteocyte
Canaliculi
hair like canals, connect lacunae to each other and central canal, allows osteocytes to communicate through gap junctions
periosteum
outer membrane lining of bone
Endostium
delicate membranous lining of medullary cavity for bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur
hyaline cartilage
supportive, on articular ends of bones, supports respiratory airways, embryonic skeleton, connects ribs to sternum, and makes up epiphyseal (growth) plate
Fibrocartilage
absorbs shock and redistributes weight in pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, and meniscus of knee
elastic cartilage
flexible, found around external ear, epiglottis, and Eustachian (auditory) tube
dense regular
forms tendons (muscle to bone), ligaments (bone to bone), and reinforces joint
dense irregular
forms periosteum which protects osteogenic cells
Diaphisis (long bone)
bone shaft, surrounds medullary cavity which holds the yellow marrow, compact bone
Epiphisis (long bone)
spongy bone as it starts to widen, red marrow is in spongy bone, has hyaline cartilage to allow growth
Metaphysis (long bone)
area the diaphysis and epiphysis meet, contains epiphyseal plat
Endosteum (long bone)
on the inside where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur
Perostium (long bone)
on the outside where tendons and ligaments attach, contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels
medullary cavity (long bone)
central cavity of bone holding yellow bone marrow
articular cartilage (long bone)
hyaline cartilage covering epiphysis at movable joints
epiphyseal plate (long bone)
layer of hyaline cartilage where bones grow in length
epiphyseal line (long bone)
where the plate used to be once it is fused by osseous tissue, in adults after growth is finished
perforating fibers (long bone)
or Sharpey's Fibers, they secure the periosteum to the bone
bone formation and development
-ossification (osteogenesis) begins 6-7 weeks into embryonic life
-mesenchymal cells differentiate into Osteogenic cells and then osteoblasts in ossification centers, osteoblasts secrete osteoid, after a few days osteoblasts become osteocytes and calcium hardens the matrix 2 typesIntramembranous ossification
- bones are formed from a fibrous membrane, the final bones to ossify are facial bones at the end of adolescence. (skull and clavicles only)Endochondral ossification
- bone replaces hyaline cartilage produced at the epiphyseal plate, slower process but similar result
long bones grow at the ______________________
epiphyseal plate
4 zones of bone growth
reserve zone
proliferative zone
zone of maturation and hypertrophy
zone of calcified matrix
reserve zone
anchors the epiphyseal plate to the osseous tissue
proliferative zone
produces new chondrocytes
zone of maturation and hypertrophy
chondrocytes grow larger
zone of calcified matrix
osteoblasts secrete bone tissue on the calcified cartilage
Pre-puberty (modeling)
-thyroid and Growth Hormone
-Growth hormone results in chondrocyte proliferation (bone growth) and calcium retention (most GH is released during sleep), stimulates insulin like growth factor
-Thyroid hormone regulates skeletal growth
at puberty (modeling)
-testosterone and Estrogen responsible for growth spurt
-Testosterone and estrogen promote bone growth and promote the conversion from epiphyseal plate to epiphyseal line
appositional growth
growth due to stress on bones, thicker bones
intersitial growth
-happens at the epiphyseal plate, longer bones
-In adults appositional growth is also known as remodeling
what is the most abundant mineral in the body
Calcium
hypocalcemia
low calcium, affects circulation (coagulation), muscles (contraction), nerves (function), and bone (brittle)
hypercalcemia
high calcium, nervous system becomes underactive leading to sluggish reflexes, constipation, loss of appetite, confusion, and possible coma
what work together for calcium balance in the body
endocrine systems, digestive systems, kidneys
long bones
cylindrical, longer than they are wide, function as levers
short bones
cube like in shape, carpals and tarsals
flat bones
thin and often curved, attachment point for muscles, often focus on protection (cranium, scapulae, and sternum
irregular bones
not easily characterized (vertebrae and some facial bones)
sesamoid bones
small and round, form in tendons (patella)
foramen
-arteries enter the bone through the nutrient foramen (small holes in the diaphysis)
-Veins leave the bone through the nutrient foramen
-Nerves follow the blood supply into bone tissue
axial skeleton
head, neck, chest, and back (80 bones)
Protection
brain, spinal chord, heart and lungs
skull
22 bones
vertabral column
24 bones
rib cage
12 pairs
appendicular skeleton
bones of the limbs 126
the skull which is known as the cranium has ____ facial bones and _____in the brain case
14/8
What is the only moveable bone of the face?
mandible
orbit of the skull
zygomatic, sphenoid, maxillary, lacrimal, ethmoid, palentine, and frontal
battles sign
discoloration over the mastoid process means possible skull fracture
ethmoid bone
houses the paranasal sinuses
bones for joints called _____
sutures
nasal conchae
swirl air to moisten and warm it before it enters the lungs. Mucus can trap dust, pollen, bacteria, and viruses
sinuses
lighten the skull, add resonance to the voice, and fill with fluid causing pain during a sinus infection
what bone is independent from the skull and held together by muscles
hyoid
vertabral column - cervical
superior column with secondary or convex curve, C1 is the Atlas and C2 is the Axis
vertabral column - thoracic
attach to ribs with a primary or concave curve
vertabral column - Lumbar
largest vertebral bones with secondary or convex curve
vertabral column - Kyphosis
excessive thoracic curve
vertabral column - Lordosis
excessive lumbar curve
vertabral column - Scoliosis
lateral curvature, twisting of the spine
anulus Fibrosis
tough outer layer of disc, it anchors the disc
nucleus Pulposus
watery, center of the disc to resist compression, gets thinner with age due to water decline
herniated disc
Nucleus pulposus breaks through anulus fibrosus, usually unilateral
pectoral girdle
-limb bones and the bones that attach upper limbs to the axial skeleton-AKA the shoulder girdle is the clavicle and scapula
-Clavicle is the only horizontal long bone, it is the most commonly fractured bone
-Clavicle protects important blood vessels and nerves
-Scapula does not articulate with the ribs
dislocated shoulder
comprised glenohumeral joint
separated shoulder
sprain of the acromioclavicular joint
3 sections of bones of the upper limb
arm ,forearm, hand
the pelvic girdle and pelvis are __________
are great for stability, have little movement
whose pelvis is wider and why
women, for childbirth
os coxa - ilium
superior portion
Os Coxa - Ischium
inferior and posterior portion
Os Coxa - Pubis
inferior and anterior portion
what does the os coxa connect to
the sacrum
name the 3 bones of the lower limb
thigh, leg, and foot
Development of Appendicular Skeleton
-Upper limbs develop first at about 4 weeks, limb buds
-Ends flatten to form hands or feet
-Ends go through apoptosis to form fingers or toes
-All develop through endochondral ossification, except clavicle
classification of joints
joints connect articulating bones, hyoid bone has no articulation
2 ways to classify joints
structurally and functionally
fibrous joints
bone joints that are fibrous connective tissue
cartilaginous joints
bones joined by hayline cartilage or fibrocartilage
synovial joints
bones are not directly connected, articulate in a fluid filled joint
synarthrosis
immobile, good for protecting organs, very stable (skull)
Amphiarthrosis
slightly moveable, vertebra and pubic symphysis
Diarthrosis
freely movable, all synovial joints, broken down further into 3 categories
Uniaxial
moves along 1 plane, elbow
Biaxial
moves in 2 planes, metacarpophalangeal joint (knuckle)
Multiaxial
moves in all planes, shoulder and hip
fibrous joints
no joint cavity between bones, joint may be narrow or wide,
3 types of fibrous joints
sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses
Fibrous Joints: Sutures
narrow fibrous joint (Skull)
fibrous joint: syndesmosis
bones are widely separated and help together by fibrous tissue
Fibrous Joint: Gomphoses
between the root of the tooth and the bony socket
suture
-almost all bones of the skull articulate at a suture
-They are much wider in a fetus or baby
Synostosis
sutures eventually ossify and become closed by bone
Syndesmosis
-2 parallel bones connected by fibrous tissue - ligament or interosseous membrane
-Classified as an amphiarthrosis
Gomphosis
-Anchors the root of the tooth into the bony socket
-Known as a peg and socket joint
-Classified as a synarthrosis
Cartilaginous Joints
tough, but flexible connective tissue, no joint cavity,
Synchondrosis
bones joined by hyaline cartilage like the epiphyseal plate (temporary) or connected to cartilage like in the ribs (permanent)
Symphysis
bones are joined by fibrocartilage, amphiarthrosis, spinal column
2 types of cartilaginous joints
synchondrosis, symphysis
synovial joints
Fluid filled joint cavity to allow greater mobility and movement, reduce friction
Must have an articular capsule to hold fluid
Hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of each bone
Synovial membrane lines the capsule and secretes synovial fluid (lubrication and nourishment)
ligaments of synovial joints
-hold bones together outside of the articulating surface
- connect bone to bone and support the joint
Extrinsic ligament
outside joint capsule
Intrinsic ligament
inside joint capsule
tendons connect _______ to _______
muscle to bone
Meniscus (articular disc)
strength, shock absorption, cushioning, and smooth movement
Bursa
thin connective tissue sac filled with lubricating fluid, they reduce friction
Tendon sheath
similar to a bursa, but smaller and around a tendon
Pivot joint
rounded portion of bone enclosed in a ring, uniaxial diarthrosis joint
Hinge joint
convex bone articulates with a concave bone, uniaxial joint
Condyloid joint
shallow depression articulates with rounded bone or bones, biaxial joint
Saddle joint
bone is concave in 1 direction and convex in another direction, biaxial joint
plane joint
articulating bones are flat, multiaxial due to form, but are often constrained by ligament restrictions
Ball and Socket joint
rounded head fits into concave articulation, multiaxial
Flexion and Extension
sagittal plane
Abduction and Adduction
frontal (coronal) plane
circumduction
biaxial and multiaxial joints, 1 end is stationary and other end moves around in a circular motion
rotation
1 bone rotates in relation to another, internal and external rotation
Supination and Pronation
palm up vs. palm down
dorsiflexion and Plantar flexion
movement of the ankle in the sagittal plane
inversion and Eversion
turning foot toward the midline or away from it
protraction and Retraction
anterior to posterior movement of scapula or mandible
Depression and Elevation
downward and upward motions of the scapula and mandible
Excursion
side to side motion of the mandible
Superior and Inferior Rotation
scapula moving to allow abduction and adduction
Opposition and Reposition
moving thumb toward other fingers and then back
Zygapophysial joints
between the superior and inferior articulating processes of each vertebra, plane joint
Cervical synovial joint
good motion in all directions
thoracic synovial joint
only good for rotation
lumbar synovial joint
largely prohibits rotation, but good for flexion and extension
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
has gliding and hinge motions
glenohumeral joint -
shoulder, largest range of motion and little stability, ball and socket joint
elbow joint
humerus, radius, and ulna all in 1 articular capsule, hinge joint
hip joint
large socket for greater stability, ball and socket joint, less motion than the shoulder
knee joint
-largest joint in the body, 3 articulations in 1 hinge joint
-Lateral and medial meniscus
-2 collateral ligaments
-2 cruciate ligaments
ankle joint
talocrural joint is a uniaxial hinge joint, inversion and eversion come from the subtalar joint
development of joints
Joints form as bones form by intramembranous ossification or by endochondral ossification
Cells in synovial joints undergo apoptosis to make room for the joint cavity and membrane
;