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Anatomy Exam 2

Key Concepts:

Terms in this set (268)

fibroblast/Fribrocyte

fibrous connective tissue

chondroblast/Chondrocyte

In cartilage (supportive)

OSteoblast/osteocyte

makes bone (supportive)

Hemocytoblast/erthrocyte, leukocyte, thrombocyte

in blood (fluid)

connective tissue __________ and ______________

supports/protects

where cells are dispersed

ground substance

large part of matrix, crisscrossed protein fibers, fluid or mineralized as in bone, what cells float in

Tissue that stores fat.

3 classifications of connective tissue

connective tissue proper (loose and dense), supportive, and fluid

connective tissue proper

fibrocytes, adipocytes, and mesenchymal cells. Immune cells move in and out of area as needed.

most abundant cell in connective tissue proper, produce proteins and polysaccharides which become ground substance

store lipids or surplus energy, brown are metabolically active and white are less active

Mesenchymal cell

multipotent adult stem cell, can be any type of connective tissue

Collagen, elastic, reticular

collagen fibers

really thick , really strong, resist stretch (bones and ligaments)

long and thin, returns to original stretch after stretch, made from protein elastin, appear yellow (skin, lungs, and blood vessels)

reticular fiber

made of same protein as collagen, but remain narrow and arrayed in a branching network, found throughout the body, but most around soft organs, framework for spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow

loose connective tissue

areolar, adipose, reticular

fat storage cells, large number of capillaries

little specialization, found in web like pattern

reticular tissue

mesh like supportive framework especially for organs

dense connective tissue

regular and irregular

fibers run parallel for greater strength (ligaments and tendons)

fibers run in all directions (dermis of the skin)

supportive connective tissue

Cartilage, hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage, bone

avascular and bound to ground substance proteins

hyaline cartilage

most common, short dispersed collagen fibers, strong and flexible (in joints, nose, endplates of bone for growth, and trachea)

thick bundles of collagen fibers that are better at absorbing shock (knee, jaw, and intervertebral discs)

elastic cartilage

elastic fibers as well as collagen (ear lobes)

-hard dense connective tissue
-rigid extracellular matrix, collagen in a mineralized ground substance of calcium phosphate, highly vascular, cancellous bone is spongier than compact bone

fluid connective tissue

blood and lymph

formed elements come from stem cells in the bone marrow, transport RBC, WBC, platelets, and wastes

transport WBC, excess fluid, and fats

synovial, cutaneous, mucous, serous

synovial membrane

dense irregular connective tissue and areolar tissue, lines the cavity of movable joints, produces synovial fluid for lubrication

cutaneous membrane

stratified squamous keratinized epithelium, areolar, and dense irregular connective tissue, skin covering body

mucous membrane

line body cavities and integral passageways (digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and extratory tracts)

Serous membrane

line cavities that dont open to the outside, covers organs in those cavities, produces a fluid for lubrication (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)

exocrine, endocrine, merocrine, apocrine, holocrine

secrete through a duct

endocrine gland

sweat glands all over the body that are active at birth

active at puberty, found in axilla and pubic region, secretes organic material which degrades and causes body odor

produce oils after puberty, not found in thick skin

What is the largest organ in the body?

What makes up the integumentary system?

skin, hair, nails, glands

3 layers of skin

epidermis (superficial), dermis (middle), and hypodermis (deep)

functions of integumentary system

protection, sensation, temperature regulation, vitamin d production,

what does the skin protect against

nature, chemicals, and microbes

what does sensation do

detects touch, temperature, and pain

what does thermoregualtion do

sweating mechanism to release sodium and water, arterioles constrict in the cold to keep vital organs warm and functioning

Explain Vitamin D synthesis

need UV radiation, may develop rickets without enough sunlight. Vitamin D for calcium and phosphorus absorption as well as general immunity

T/F - the epidermis is keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium

how many layers are in the thin layer of skin

is more common and mainly has hair follicles and arrector pili muscles

how many layers are in thick skin

thick skin is mainly on ....

palms of hands and soles of feet

has lots of sweat glands, no sebaceous glands, more densely packed touch receptors

What does keratin do?

give skin, hair and nails hardness and water resistance

the epidermis is ________

how many pounds of cells do we loose in our lifetime

three different types of epidermis cells

merkel cells
melanocytes
Langerhans cells

touch receptors

produce the pigment melanin to give color to the skin

Langerhans cells

Macrophages for immune functions

-Deepest layer of cells in the epidermis
-Bonds to the basement membrane
-The basal cell is a cuboidal shaped stem cell
-Produces all keratinocytes, goes through mitosis often pushing older cells superficially (30-40 days to move a cell through all layers)
-Contains Merkel cells (stimulating sensory nerve) and melanocytes which produce the pigment melanin (give hair and skin their color and protects against UV radiation damage

stratum spinosum

-Spiny in appearance due to connection with desmosomes
-Interspersed Langerhans Cells that act as macrophages
-Here the keratinocytes from the basal layer begin the synthesis of keratin
-Keratinocytes get pushed up to the next layer by the new cells being produced
-Desmosomes keep keratinocytes together

stratum granulosum

-Has a grainy appearance
-Cells become flatter
-Produces lots of keratin and keratohyaline which forms the lamellar granules
-The organelles disintegrate as cells die and leave behind keratin, keratohyaline, and cell membranes to form the next layers of the epidermis and accessory structures

stratum lucidum

-Smooth and translucent layer found only in the thick skin
-Keratinocytes are dead and flattened
-Cells are full of eleiden which is a protein rich in lipid formed from keratohyaline and gives the lucid appearance and is a barrier against water

stratum corneum

-Most superficial, dry dead layer, water proof surface
-Protect against microbes and protects more delicate deeper cells
-The entire layer gets replaced about every 4 weeks

Skin color is influenced by

melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin

darker skin is from greater or lesser amounts of melanin

greater amounts

melanin protects DNA from what

UV ray damage and the breakdown of folic acid

too much melanin does what

interferes with vitamin D production

what can too much sun do

lead to wrinkles and if it reaches too much of the DNA lead to skin cancer

what are freckles

the irregular collection of melanocytes and moles are large masses of melanocytes

the dermis is the _______ of the integumentary system

the dermis contains what

lymph, hair, nerve, sweat glands

what are the 2 layers of the dermis

papillary and reticular

papillary layer

superficial 1/5 of dermis, connects to stratum basale, areolar connective tissue, it contains fibroblasts, few adipocytes, lots of blood vessels, phagocytes, nerve fibers, and touch receptors called Meissner corpuscles along with pain (nociceptors) and thermoreceptors receptors

reticular layer

irregular connective tissue, less vascular, glands, hair follicles, and nerve fibers, collagen fibers provide strength by connecting to papillary layer and hypodermis, has Pacinian corpuscles (vibration and pressure)

which layer connects skin to bones and muscles

hypodermis has well ___________________________ and _________________

vascularized connective areolar tissue and adipose tissue

keratinous filament made of dead cells, found almost everywhere

hair provides what

protection, thermoregulation, sensory input, and communication

hair typically grows how many mm per day

why does hair color turn gray

the melanin controls hair color and over time it decreases, so it turns gray or white

3 cycles of hair growth

anagen, catagen, telogen

continuous growth

catagen portion

no growth, follicle shrivels

telogen portion

total resting period

-Nail body is formed on the nail bed
-The nail root is attached to the epidermis at the stratum basale
-The nail is densely packed dead keratinocyte

-Epidermal projections into the dermis to cool the body
-Most are Merocrine (Eccrine) glands

normal over the body (abundant on hands, feet, and forehead), the sweat is hypotonic

apocrine glands

normal in areas with lots of hair (genitals and arm pits), they additionally release organic compounds that decompose (cause body odor), begin at puberty

sebaceous (holocrine) glands

release oils to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair, they help the skin to be more pliable, most don't start working until puberty

ceruminous glands

in ear canal and produce ear wax

abnormal cells dividing uncontrollably, 1 in 5 Americans will suffer some sort of skin cancer

basal cell carcinoma

starts in the stratum basale and spread out, eventually growing toward the surface, surgery, freezing, topical ointment

Sqamous Cell Carcinoma

2nd most common and more aggressive, surgery and radiation are both used, keratinocytes of stratum Spinosum affected

uncontrolled growth of melanocytes, usually develops from a mole, most fatal skin cancer, surgery and immunotherapy both used

allergic reaction that presents as dry itchy patches, severe case may bleed. Use moisturizers, corticosteroid creams, or an immunosuppressants

-found with sebaceous glands on the face and back, common at puberty, overproduction of sebum and keratin that blocks hair follicles
-The plug is white, sebum changes to black as it reacts with the air, skin turns red due to inflammation from a bacterial infection

sensitive to dehydration and infection

first degree burns

epidermis burn (sunburn)

second degree burns

into the dermis (normal to blister)

third degree burns

burn through the entire dermis (may destroy nerve endings)

fourth degree burns

into muscle and bones

any cut deeper than the epidermis leads to scar formation, fibroblasts shut wound with collagen rather than regular cellular replacement

raised scar because collagen formation does not stop

reduced blood flow resulting in necrosis, risk for infection

dermis is stretched beyond the limit of its elasticity

stratum basale divide more often due to pressure and friction, it is the body trying to protect itself

semi rigid connective tissue for flexibility and smooth surfaces

Functions of the skeletal system

bone
cartilage
support the body (shape)
facilitate movement
protect organs and blood cells
store and release minerals and fat (calcium and phosphate)
production of blood (hematopoiesis)

4 types of bone cells

osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

osteogenic cells

they divide and develope into osteoblasts

forms new bone, does not divide, it secretes collagen and gets trapped as the collagen calcifies, it matures into and osteocyte

common bone cell, maintain the mineral concentration by secreting enzymes, they do not divide

responsible for breakdown and re-absorption of bone, they are multi nucleated and originate from white blood cells, use hydrogen and chloride to lower pH and dissolve bone

33% collagen (protein) fibers to resist stretching and twisting, ground substance formed of proteoglycans and glycoproteins

hard matrix of the bone to resist compression, 85% is hydroxyapatite (crystalized calcium phosphate salt) and 15% is flouride, sulfate, potassium, and magnesium

80% - microscopic calcified ring around a central canal, blood vessels, nerve, and lymph vessels follow and connect all canals of the bone, waste removal and nutrient transport, in shaft of long bones and covers spongy bone

20% - shaped like a lattice work and not a canal system, some of the spaces will contain the red marrow, in the epiphysis and bones of skull

stuctural unit of compact bone elongated cylinder parallel with the length of the bone, has a central opening

Haversian canal

through the center of the osteon, houses blood vessels and nerve fibers, lined with endosteum

volkmanns canal

pendicular to central canal for blood vessels and nerve fibers

arrangement of matrix (Concentric, Interstitial, and Circumferential)

osteocytes in bone

spider shaped cells found in lacunae at junctions of lamellae

spaces between osteon rings, houses osteocyte

hair like canals, connect lacunae to each other and central canal, allows osteocytes to communicate through gap junctions

outer membrane lining of bone

delicate membranous lining of medullary cavity for bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur

hyaline cartilage

supportive, on articular ends of bones, supports respiratory airways, embryonic skeleton, connects ribs to sternum, and makes up epiphyseal (growth) plate

absorbs shock and redistributes weight in pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, and meniscus of knee

elastic cartilage

flexible, found around external ear, epiglottis, and Eustachian (auditory) tube

forms tendons (muscle to bone), ligaments (bone to bone), and reinforces joint

dense irregular

forms periosteum which protects osteogenic cells

Diaphisis (long bone)

bone shaft, surrounds medullary cavity which holds the yellow marrow, compact bone

Epiphisis (long bone)

spongy bone as it starts to widen, red marrow is in spongy bone, has hyaline cartilage to allow growth

Metaphysis (long bone)

area the diaphysis and epiphysis meet, contains epiphyseal plat

Endosteum (long bone)

on the inside where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur

Perostium (long bone)

on the outside where tendons and ligaments attach, contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels

medullary cavity (long bone)

central cavity of bone holding yellow bone marrow

articular cartilage (long bone)

hyaline cartilage covering epiphysis at movable joints

epiphyseal plate (long bone)

layer of hyaline cartilage where bones grow in length

epiphyseal line (long bone)

where the plate used to be once it is fused by osseous tissue, in adults after growth is finished

perforating fibers (long bone)

or Sharpey's Fibers, they secure the periosteum to the bone

bone formation and development

-ossification (osteogenesis) begins 6-7 weeks into embryonic life
-mesenchymal cells differentiate into Osteogenic cells and then osteoblasts in ossification centers, osteoblasts secrete osteoid, after a few days osteoblasts become osteocytes and calcium hardens the matrix 2 typesIntramembranous ossification
- bones are formed from a fibrous membrane, the final bones to ossify are facial bones at the end of adolescence. (skull and clavicles only)Endochondral ossification
- bone replaces hyaline cartilage produced at the epiphyseal plate, slower process but similar result

long bones grow at the ______________________

epiphyseal plate

4 zones of bone growth

reserve zone
proliferative zone
zone of maturation and hypertrophy
zone of calcified matrix

anchors the epiphyseal plate to the osseous tissue

proliferative zone

produces new chondrocytes

zone of maturation and hypertrophy

chondrocytes grow larger

zone of calcified matrix

osteoblasts secrete bone tissue on the calcified cartilage

Pre-puberty (modeling)

-thyroid and Growth Hormone
-Growth hormone results in chondrocyte proliferation (bone growth) and calcium retention (most GH is released during sleep), stimulates insulin like growth factor
-Thyroid hormone regulates skeletal growth

at puberty (modeling)

-testosterone and Estrogen responsible for growth spurt
-Testosterone and estrogen promote bone growth and promote the conversion from epiphyseal plate to epiphyseal line

appositional growth

growth due to stress on bones, thicker bones

intersitial growth

-happens at the epiphyseal plate, longer bones
-In adults appositional growth is also known as remodeling

what is the most abundant mineral in the body

low calcium, affects circulation (coagulation), muscles (contraction), nerves (function), and bone (brittle)

high calcium, nervous system becomes underactive leading to sluggish reflexes, constipation, loss of appetite, confusion, and possible coma

what work together for calcium balance in the body

endocrine systems, digestive systems, kidneys

cylindrical, longer than they are wide, function as levers

cube like in shape, carpals and tarsals

thin and often curved, attachment point for muscles, often focus on protection (cranium, scapulae, and sternum

irregular bones

not easily characterized (vertebrae and some facial bones)

small and round, form in tendons (patella)

-arteries enter the bone through the nutrient foramen (small holes in the diaphysis)
-Veins leave the bone through the nutrient foramen
-Nerves follow the blood supply into bone tissue

head, neck, chest, and back (80 bones)

brain, spinal chord, heart and lungs

vertabral column

appendicular skeleton

bones of the limbs 126

the skull which is known as the cranium has ____ facial bones and _____in the brain case

What is the only moveable bone of the face?

orbit of the skull

zygomatic, sphenoid, maxillary, lacrimal, ethmoid, palentine, and frontal

discoloration over the mastoid process means possible skull fracture

houses the paranasal sinuses

bones for joints called _____

swirl air to moisten and warm it before it enters the lungs. Mucus can trap dust, pollen, bacteria, and viruses

lighten the skull, add resonance to the voice, and fill with fluid causing pain during a sinus infection

what bone is independent from the skull and held together by muscles

vertabral column - cervical

superior column with secondary or convex curve, C1 is the Atlas and C2 is the Axis

vertabral column - thoracic

attach to ribs with a primary or concave curve

vertabral column - Lumbar

largest vertebral bones with secondary or convex curve

vertabral column - Kyphosis

excessive thoracic curve

vertabral column - Lordosis

excessive lumbar curve

vertabral column - Scoliosis

lateral curvature, twisting of the spine

anulus Fibrosis

tough outer layer of disc, it anchors the disc

nucleus Pulposus

watery, center of the disc to resist compression, gets thinner with age due to water decline

Nucleus pulposus breaks through anulus fibrosus, usually unilateral

pectoral girdle

-limb bones and the bones that attach upper limbs to the axial skeleton-AKA the shoulder girdle is the clavicle and scapula
-Clavicle is the only horizontal long bone, it is the most commonly fractured bone
-Clavicle protects important blood vessels and nerves
-Scapula does not articulate with the ribs

dislocated shoulder

comprised glenohumeral joint

separated shoulder

sprain of the acromioclavicular joint

3 sections of bones of the upper limb

arm ,forearm, hand

the pelvic girdle and pelvis are __________

are great for stability, have little movement

whose pelvis is wider and why

women, for childbirth

os coxa - ilium

superior portion

Os Coxa - Ischium

inferior and posterior portion

Os Coxa - Pubis

inferior and anterior portion

what does the os coxa connect to

name the 3 bones of the lower limb

thigh, leg, and foot

Development of Appendicular Skeleton

-Upper limbs develop first at about 4 weeks, limb buds
-Ends flatten to form hands or feet
-Ends go through apoptosis to form fingers or toes
-All develop through endochondral ossification, except clavicle

classification of joints

joints connect articulating bones, hyoid bone has no articulation

2 ways to classify joints

structurally and functionally

bone joints that are fibrous connective tissue

cartilaginous joints

bones joined by hayline cartilage or fibrocartilage

synovial joints

bones are not directly connected, articulate in a fluid filled joint

immobile, good for protecting organs, very stable (skull)

slightly moveable, vertebra and pubic symphysis

freely movable, all synovial joints, broken down further into 3 categories

moves along 1 plane, elbow

moves in 2 planes, metacarpophalangeal joint (knuckle)

moves in all planes, shoulder and hip

no joint cavity between bones, joint may be narrow or wide,

3 types of fibrous joints

sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses

Fibrous Joints: Sutures

narrow fibrous joint (Skull)

fibrous joint: syndesmosis

bones are widely separated and help together by fibrous tissue

Fibrous Joint: Gomphoses

between the root of the tooth and the bony socket

-almost all bones of the skull articulate at a suture
-They are much wider in a fetus or baby

sutures eventually ossify and become closed by bone

-2 parallel bones connected by fibrous tissue - ligament or interosseous membrane
-Classified as an amphiarthrosis

-Anchors the root of the tooth into the bony socket
-Known as a peg and socket joint
-Classified as a synarthrosis

Cartilaginous Joints

tough, but flexible connective tissue, no joint cavity,

bones joined by hyaline cartilage like the epiphyseal plate (temporary) or connected to cartilage like in the ribs (permanent)

bones are joined by fibrocartilage, amphiarthrosis, spinal column

2 types of cartilaginous joints

synchondrosis, symphysis

synovial joints

Fluid filled joint cavity to allow greater mobility and movement, reduce friction
Must have an articular capsule to hold fluid
Hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of each bone
Synovial membrane lines the capsule and secretes synovial fluid (lubrication and nourishment)

ligaments of synovial joints

-hold bones together outside of the articulating surface
- connect bone to bone and support the joint

Extrinsic ligament

outside joint capsule

Intrinsic ligament

inside joint capsule

tendons connect _______ to _______

Meniscus (articular disc)

strength, shock absorption, cushioning, and smooth movement

thin connective tissue sac filled with lubricating fluid, they reduce friction

similar to a bursa, but smaller and around a tendon

rounded portion of bone enclosed in a ring, uniaxial diarthrosis joint

convex bone articulates with a concave bone, uniaxial joint

Condyloid joint

shallow depression articulates with rounded bone or bones, biaxial joint

bone is concave in 1 direction and convex in another direction, biaxial joint

articulating bones are flat, multiaxial due to form, but are often constrained by ligament restrictions

Ball and Socket joint

rounded head fits into concave articulation, multiaxial

Flexion and Extension

Abduction and Adduction

frontal (coronal) plane

biaxial and multiaxial joints, 1 end is stationary and other end moves around in a circular motion

1 bone rotates in relation to another, internal and external rotation

Supination and Pronation

palm up vs. palm down

dorsiflexion and Plantar flexion

movement of the ankle in the sagittal plane

inversion and Eversion

turning foot toward the midline or away from it

protraction and Retraction

anterior to posterior movement of scapula or mandible

Depression and Elevation

downward and upward motions of the scapula and mandible

side to side motion of the mandible

Superior and Inferior Rotation

scapula moving to allow abduction and adduction

Opposition and Reposition

moving thumb toward other fingers and then back

Zygapophysial joints

between the superior and inferior articulating processes of each vertebra, plane joint

Cervical synovial joint

good motion in all directions

thoracic synovial joint

only good for rotation

lumbar synovial joint

largely prohibits rotation, but good for flexion and extension

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

has gliding and hinge motions

glenohumeral joint -

shoulder, largest range of motion and little stability, ball and socket joint

humerus, radius, and ulna all in 1 articular capsule, hinge joint

large socket for greater stability, ball and socket joint, less motion than the shoulder

-largest joint in the body, 3 articulations in 1 hinge joint
-Lateral and medial meniscus
-2 collateral ligaments
-2 cruciate ligaments

talocrural joint is a uniaxial hinge joint, inversion and eversion come from the subtalar joint

development of joints

Joints form as bones form by intramembranous ossification or by endochondral ossification
Cells in synovial joints undergo apoptosis to make room for the joint cavity and membrane

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