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Final Exam IR
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Gravity
Terms in this set (51)
Rally Effect
-The tendency for ppl to become more supportive of their country's gov in response to dramatic international events, such as crises or wars
-increase in patriotism bc ppl become attached/loyal to their group when they have a conflict with outsiders
-ex: Bush's approval ratings increased by almost 50% after 9/11
diversionary incentive
-the incentive that state leaders have to start international crises in order to rally public support at home
-leaders who know they will loose power bc of poor econ conditions or are insecure are more willing to risk starting a war and gambling that the outcome will be positive
-ex: Argentina junta
military-industrial complex
-an alleged alliance between military leaders and corporate leaders
-Eisenhower first coined this phrase when he warned American against it in his last State of the Union Address bc of the cold war → excessive spending
Particularistic Interests
-interests held by a relatively small number of actors within the country, like a ethnic minority
-ex: the United Fruit co (Guatemala) asked the US to intervene after the govt. took their land. their interest was keeping their land.
Alliances
-agreements between nations to aid and protect one another in the event of a war
-Specify standards of behavior/expectations about how states are to behave under certain conditions. May include provisions for monitoring and verifying each member's compliance and procedures for joint decision making.
-These can be offensive or defensive. Ex of offensive: the Molotov-Ribbentrop
-more commonly alliances are defensive, like NATO
-Results of alliances include chain-gaining and opportunism
Chain-gaining
-the elevated probability for interstate conflict due to several states having joined together in alliances or coalitions.
Entrapment
-the risk of being dragged into an unwanted war bc of the opportunistic actions of an ally
-ex: the US wants to defend Taiwan, but not have China attack the state for wanting to declare independence. The US has to stay bc if they were to leave Taiwan, China would most likely attack
collective security organizations
-Institutions that promote peace and security among their members
-role is to facilitate collective action so that states can respond effectively to prevent the outbreak of violence
-not meant to alter bargaining outcomes in favor of one state or another, but to ensure that changes to the status quo happen peacefully
-forbid use of military force of one state against another --> usually provide methods or mediators to help resolve disputes peacefully
-Ex: League of Nations (now the UN)
League of Nations
-Collective security org founded in 1919 after WW1
-now the UN as of 1946
Veto power
-the ability to prevent the passage of a measure through a unilateral act, such as a single negative vote
-ex: representatives of the UN have this power --> UK and France used their veto power in '89 to condemn a resolution for the US invasion of Panama
peace-enforcement operation
-a military operation in which force is used to make and/or enforce peace among warring parties that have not agreed to end their fighting
-1 of 2 methods the UN can use
-ex: UN intervention during to Gulf War to force Saddam Hussein's Iraqi army to withdrawal from Kuwait
peacekeeping operation
-an operation in which troops and observers are deployed to monitor a cease-fire or peace agreement
-1 of 2 methods the UN can use
-can also help to administer elections/ensure fairness
-Ex: Stabilization mission in Haiti and Mali
Spillover costs
-refers to the impact that seemingly unrelated events in one nation can have on the economies or society of other nations.
-Ex: Lebanon and Iraq see immense spillover costs with the Syrian civil war
Proxy War
-Conflicts in which 2 opposing states fight by supporting opposite sides in a war, such as the govt. and rebels in a 3rd state
-Ex: The SU and China supported communist rebels in S. Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, while the US supported those govs
Terrorism
-Acts of violence designed to promote a specific ideology or agenda by creating panic among an enemy population
-usually, extremists bc their interests are not typically shared by others
-adopt organizational forms that make it difficult for traditional military forces to defeat them. Unlike states, which have internal hierarchies, terrorists are organized in networks of individuals and groups that cooperate to achieve common aims. Second, they hide or conceal themselves with sympathetic populations
-Weak in two senses: weak relative to the states they seek to coerce and they are weak relative the demands that they make
-goals can include overthrowing a govt, expel a foreign power from their homeland, or carve a utopian society
-Ex: Al-Qaeda wanted to remove all western influence in the middle east to bring Islamic gov
-Ex: Shinning Path is a Marxist terrorist group that wants to have a communist rev in Peru
Asymmetrical Warfare
-A conflict between actors with highly unequal military capabilities
-includes terriosism and insurgency
Insurgency
-a military strategy in which small, often lightly armed units engage in hit-and-run attacks against military, gov, and civilian targets
-purpose is to impose costs on the gov in order to induce concessions
-often attack military bases, gov buildings, or population centers
-Ex: Taliban insurgency in Afgan sought to undermine faith in the US backed gov by making people insecure they said they would protect those who agreed w them but hurt others
coercion
-A strategy of imposing or threatening to impose costs on other actors to induce a change in their behavior.
-can be useful with deterrence and crisis management to demonstrate a state's intentions and abilities
-Ex: the US sought to gradually escalate strategic bombing in order to coerce N Vietnam into not taking over S. Vietnam. They did not stop tho bc they were willing to bear the costs to reunify Vietnam
Provocation
-A strategy of terrorist attacks intended to provoke the target gov into making a disproportionate response that alienates moderates in the terrorists' home society or in other sympathetic audiences
-Disproportionate responses may lead the terrorists' home population to believe that it has more to fear from the target than from the extremists → when the US invaded Iraq even though they had no role in the 9/11 attacks was seen as unjustified, prompting anti-American sentiment
Spoiling
-A strategy of terrorism intended to SPOIL a peace between the target and moderates from the terrorists' home.
-Ex: US and the Taliban were in peace talks until a US soldier was killed → Moderates who claimed they would keep peace did not bc they cannot control hardliners
Outbidding
-a strategy of terrorist attacks designed to demonstrate superior capability and commitment relative to other groups devoted to the same causes. Arises when people are uncertain which of the several orgs best rep their interests
-Ex: factions from the Palestinian movement (Fatah and hamas)
comparative advantage
-the ability to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another producer, such that its resources are most efficiently employed in this activity→ an individual nation gains most by specializing in producing and exporting what it produces most efficiently
Protectionism
-the theory or practice of shielding a country's domestic industries from foreign competition by taxing imports.
-Ex: The trade war between China and the US is basically a spiral of protectionist policies between the two countries. The tariffs put on American soybeans and pork by the Chinese can be thought of as a way to protect Chinese farmers (as well as retaliation against the US more generally).
Trade Barriers
-Restrictions to free trade
-reducing these is usually better for a nation's econ
-ex: tariffs, quantitative restrictions, import licenses, or health/safety standards
Tariff
-a tax on imported goods usually reserved for regulating trade with foreign countries
-applied for the purpose of protecting domestic producers from foreign comp
-ex: Trump imposed these on aluminum, steel, solar panels
redistributive effect
-income is redistributed from domestic consumers to the protected domestic industry
-toy producers
Primary Products
-raw materials and agricultural products. the primary sectors are distinguished from secondary sectors (industry) and tertiary sectors (services)
Oligopoly
-a situation in which a market or industry is dominated by a few firms
-ex: airlines, US wireless phone providers
Import Substitution Industrialization
-an economic system that attempts to strengthen a country's industrial power by restricting foreign imports
-often thru manufacturing, and state ownership of basic industries
-ex: Brazil did this by putting up trade barriers against foreign car imports and subsidizing its own automotive industry in order to become self-sufficient in that type of manufacturing
export-oriented industrialization
a trade and economic policy aiming to speed up the industrialization process of a country by exporting goods for which the nation has a comparative advantage
Washington Consensus
-An array of policy recommendations generally advocated by developed-country economists and policy makers starting in the 1980s, including trade liberalization, privatization, openness to foreign investment, and restrictive monetary and fiscal policies.
Resource Curse
-the difficulties faced by resource-rich developing countries, including dependence on exporting one or a few commodities whose prices fluctuate, as well as potentials for corruption and inequality
-The relationship between resource wealth and underdevelopment, or initial wealth gives rise to subsequent poverty
-ex: Uganda, big oil reserves, yet the gov sees most of that wealth not anyone else → one of the most corrupt countries in the world
Commodity Cartels
-associations of producers of commodities that restrict world supply and thereby cause the price of the goods to rise
-control supply and demand
-OPEC, oil producers, had success because there were few readily available substitutes for oil, so price increases did not reduce consumption very much. They also did not need to sell oil quickly and could hold it off the market to keep prices high
Hard law
-obligatory, precisely defined, and delegates substantial authority to third parties, particularly international courts
-ex: ICC, World Bank → independent body, precise, obligatory
Soft Law
-aspirational, ambiguous, and does not delegate significant powers to third parties.
-Countries often adopt soft law because it is easier to achieve, more flexible and therefore better suited to dealing with uncertain future
-Ex: Kyoto Protocol b/c there's not tasks delegated to a 3rd party, aspirational, ambiguous
Transnation Advocacy Network
-A set of individuals and nongovernmental orgs acting in pursuit of a normative obj, including human rights, econ and social justice, environment, etc.
-promote norms to alter interests and interactions at the individual and state levels by presenting knowledge
-ex: Planned parenthood, heartbeat international
Boomerang Model
-a process thru which NGOs in one state are able to activate transnational linkages to bring pressure from other states on their own gov
-more likely to work by NGOs originating in nondemocratic regimes and directed at NGOs in more democratic states
-ex: Antiapartheid in South Africa. black SAs sought to make TANS to be supported by westernized nations, who ended up supporting them
International Bill of Rights
-Refers collectively to the UDHR, the ICCPR, and the ICESCR. Together, these three agreements form the core of the international human rights regime.
-seeks to have human, civil, political, econ, social, and cultural rights --> more have been added over time
Negative freedom
-freedom from something (western ideals)
-aka non-derogable rights
-ex: freedom from torture, freedom from search and seizure
positive freedom
-provided freedoms (eastern, socialist)
-ex being educated
International criminal court
-investigates and, where warranted, tries individuals charged with the gravest crimes of concern to the international community: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and the crime of aggression
-the ICC is a court of last resort, meaning that it cannot act if a national judicial authority has genuinely investigated or prosecuted a case—regardless of the outcome of that investigation or prosecution. The ICC can act only when a state cannot or will not act itself
-condemned by US
Paris Agreement
-An agreement negotiated under the UNFCCC in 2015, signed by 197 countries and entered into force in 2016. It was the first agreement to require commitments for the control of greenhouse gas emissions from all signatories
-Despite broad-based interests in environmental quality, cooperation is thwarted by interactions in which it is difficult to coordinate large number of states
Tragedy of the commons
-A problem that occurs when a resource is open to all without limit. No one has an incentive to converse bc others would use the resource in the meantime. So the resource suffers degradation
-prime example of the prisoner's dilemma
-open sea fishing, pollution
public good
-Non-excludable and non-rivalrous
-ex: defense: defense is provided for inhabitants of any state regardless of your citizenship, and socioeconomic status. Defense is funded thru gov means and executed through militarial means, but does not cost the inhabitants of a state anything more than the taxes they are already paying.
Common pool pressure
-Goods that are available to everyone, but one user's consumption of the good reduces the amount available
-Non-excludable but rivalrous
-Ex: open sea fishing
-With common pool resources, international bodies need to control how they are to be used. --> UN created the Law of the Sea Convention in 1982 to extend international law to shared water resources. The convention made breakthroughs in defining how oceans were to be distributed. They est. freedom-of-navigation rights, set territorial sea boundaries 12 miles offshore, set exclusive econ zones up to 200 miles offshore, set rules for extending continental shelf rights up to 350 miles offshore, created the International Seabed Authority amongst other conflict-resolution mechanisms
Kyoto Protocol
-An Amendment to the UN framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005, that est. specific targets for reducing emissions of carbon and other greenhouse gases to 2020
-Created a carbon trading system that privatized what was once a public good
-Before Kyoto, the atmosphere was treated as free for anyone to use, even when that use produced harmful greenhouse gasses
-The protocol limited the total amount of carbon pollution allowed and then divided that resource among the parties through rights to pollute
-Social practice and laws can change the incentives and thus, the interest of acts is a foundation on which better environmental practices can be built
Montreal Protocol
-An international treaty thats designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of CFCs, and other chemical compounds
-Most rapid and successful international environmental effort in history
-this worked - emissions of ozone-depleting substances have decreased dramatically
-major challenge was how to ensure that developing countries that were not yet major manufacturers would go along with the ban instead of jumping in to take advantage of a deserted market
-Established the Multilateral Fund: designed to compensate developing countries for the cost of phaseout and provide technical and financial assistance with the transition to other chemicals
-is also costly to those who did not join - those outside the treaty could not purchase ODS from treaty members
-The protocol is largely successful because of its design - flexible and dynamic
Cap and trade system
-set limits on emissions, which are then lowered over time to reduce pollutants released into the atmosphere. firms can sell credits when they emit less than their allocation or must buy from others when they emit too much
-In addition to buying and selling credits within the EU, European countries can buy credits from developing countries - Clean development mechanism
Externalities
-Cost or benefits for stakeholders other than the actor undertaking an action. When an externality exists, the decision-maker does not bear all the costs
-Polluting a river with chemicals is a negative externality because the action harms the health and livelihood of inhabitants downstream who may use the polluted water to farm, bathe, fish, or drink
-Positive externality: if a school club cleans a stretch of a beach, it is not only its members who benefit from a litter-free and safe swimming area but also all others who might use the same spot
-They create a divergence between the individual costs or benefits of action and the broader costs or benefits to society as a whole
-Individuals are motivated to act only by their private costs and benefits and they do not take into account the costs and benefits imposed on others
-Externalities create problems of bargaining or redistribution in which one side gains come as a result of the other side's losses
Iteration
-repeated interactions with the same partners
-actors can prevent one another from by threatening to withhold cooperation in the future
-every-time NATO meets up, their relationship is reinforced
linkage politics
-the linking of cooperation on one issue to interactions on a second issue
-this allows victims to retaliate by withholding cooperation on other issues
-ex: regional trade agreement NAFTA is linked with human rights
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