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A & P 2 Ch. 21

Terms in this set (188)

complex collection of cells & organs that destroys or neutralizes pathogens that would otherwise cause diarrhea or disease

lymphatic system

system of vessels, cells, and organs that carries excess fluids to bloodstream and filters pathogens from blood

functions of lymphatic system- 1

-drains excess interstitial fluid from interstitial space and transports it to bloodstream
(drains excess fluids away from tissues and back to circulation)
-lymph: once tissue fluid enters into lymphatic vessels, it is no longer called interstitial fluid
-any blockage in normal drainage of lymph produces lymphedema

functions of lymphatic system- 2

houses phagocytic cells and lymphocytes that clean tissue fluid before it is dumped into circulation

functions of lymphatic system- 3

-lacteals: absorbs digested fats from intestine by specialized lymph vessels
*transport of fats from digestive tract
-chyle: fatty lymph
chylomicron + lymph = chyle

functions of lymphatic system

houses WBC necessary to clean fluid before draining into circulation

Structure of lymphatic system- 1

includes vessels, cells, tissues, and organs responsible for defending body against both environmental hazards (such as various pathogens) and internal threats (such as cancer cells)

2. lymph vessels

-carry lymph from peripheral tissues to venous system
-lymphatic network begins with lymphatic capillaries, which merge to form progressively larger vessels as they make their way towards circulation

lymph capillaries

-present in almost every tissue and organ in body
-believed to be as abundant as blood capillaries
*only move fluid to bloodstream

lymph capillaries: 1

lymph capillaries are absent, however, in areas of the body that lack a blood supply, such as the cornea of the eye, and are also absent from CNS and bone marrow

lymph capillaries: 2

lymph capillaries differ from blood capillaries in that they are:
1) blind-end tubes
2) have larger diameters with lower resistance & pressure
3) have thinner walls that are more permeable
4) typically have a flattened or irregular shaped lumen

lymph capillaries: 3

-lymphatic capillaries lined by simple squamous epithelium, the basal lamina is incomplete or absent
-mini-valve: endothelial cells overlap forming a type of one-way valve
-mini-valves permit entry of fluids and solutes (such as proteins) as well as viruses, bacteria, and cell debris, but prevent their return to the intercellular spaces
*& true valves

lymph collecting vessels

from lymph capillaries, lymph flows into larger lymph collecting vessels with valves that lead toward body's trunk

superficial & deep lymph collecting vessels converge to form larger vessels known as lymphatic trunks and are named by areas of body they drain

are located in neck and drain the head

subclavian trunks

located in shoulders and drain arms

bronchomediastinal trunks

located in chest and drain thoracic cavity & lungs

located in lower back and drain pelvis & lower limbs

interstitial trunk

located in abdomen and drains walls of digestive organs

blockage of lumbar trunks or subclavian trunks by a filarial worms, such as Wuchereria Bancroft, causes severe lymphedema

lymph trunks merge to form 2 largest lymphatic vessels called right lymphatic duct & thoracic duct

right lymphatic duct

-forms from merger of right jugular trunk, right subclavian trunk and right bronchomediastinal trunk
-right lymphatic duct drains the right side of head, right arm, right shoulder, and right side of thoracic cavity
-right lymphatic duct empties into right subclavian vein

-ascends along the left side of vertebral column, collecting lymph from left bronchomediastinal trunk, left subclavian trunk, left jugular trunk
-cisterna chyli: at the base of thoracic duct is enlarged sac-like chamber, which receives lymph from lumbar trunk and interstitial trunk
-thoracic duct drains left side of head, left arm, left shoulder, left side of thoracic cavity, all of abdomen, pelvic region, both legs
-empties into left subclavian vein

organization of immune function- barrier defenses

1. barrier defenses

-such as skin & mucous membranes
-which act instantaneously to prevent pathogenic invasion into body tissues

2. innate immune responses

-rapid, non-specific
-response consists of variety of specialized cells and soluble factors

3. adaptive immune response

-slower, specific & effective
-involves many cell types and soluble factors
-primarily controlled by WBC known as lymphocytes- help control immune responses

4. lymphopoiesis

-involves red bone marrow, thymus, peripheral lymphoid tissues
-WBCs can be divided into 3 classes based on function:

phagocytic cells

ingest pathogens to destroy them

specifically coordinate activities of adaptive immunity

help mediate immune responses against parasites and intracellular pathogens such as viruses

lymphocytes: B cells, T cells, plasma cells, NK cells

-account for 20-30% of circulating leukocyte populations
-circulating lymphocytes are only a small fraction of total lymphocyte population
-majority of these reside within lymph organs of body such as lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, thymus, etc.

-account for 10-15% of circulating lymphocytes
-responsible for antibody-mediated immunity (aka humoral immunity) bec antibodies circulate widely within body fluids and attack targets with foreign antigens
-when stimulated by antigen, B cells differentiate into plasma cells

-produce & secrete antibodies
-differ in morphology from standard B & T cells in that they contain a large amount of cytoplasm packed with protein-synthesizing machinery known as rough ER

-approx. 80% of circulating lymphocytes
-diverse and provide cell-mediated immunity

-only 5-10% of circulating lymphocytes
-part of body's nonspecific defenses
-using cytotoxic granules to attack foreign cells, body cells infected with virus, cancer cells that appear in normal tissues
-immunological surveillance: their continuous monitoring of peripheral tissues

primary lymphoid organs & lymphocyte development

1. red bone marrow

-blood cells made in yolk sac in embryo
-function taken over by spleen, lymph nodes, and liver as embryo develops
-later, bone marrow takes over most hematopoietic functions
-although, final stages of differentiation of some cells may take place in other organs
-thymocytes: immature T cells leave bone marrow and mature largely in thymus gland
*B cells made & mature

-produces several hormones, collectively called thymosins- important to development of functional T cells, and thus to maintenance of normal body defenses

-thymus large when a person is born and continues to grow through childhood as individual is exposed to infection
-by puberty, thymus weighs 40g
-involution: process after puberty, it gradually diminishes in size and becomes increasingly fibrous
-by age 50, thymus may weigh less than 12g and correlated with inc in susceptibility to infection and disease
*T cells mature

-surrounded by capsule that divides into right and left lobes
-septa: fibrous partitions that originate at capsule and divide lobes into lobules averaging 2 mm in diameter

-each lobule consists of dark outer cortex and a lighter central medulla
-medulla is dominated by thymic corpuscles not present in cortex

secondary lymphoid organs and their roles in active immune responses

1. naïve lymphocyte

-one that has left the primary organ and entered a secondary lymphoid organ
-fully functional immunologically, but have yet to encounter antigen to respond to

-small lymphoid organs ranging in diameter from 1mm-25mm
-shape typically resembles that of kidney bean
-largest collections are located in cervical region, axillary region, inguinal region
-as lymph flows through lymph node, at least 99% of antigens in lymph are removed and immune response is stimulated as needed
-buboes: swollen lymph nodes

path of lymph through a lymph node:

a. afferent lymphatic vessel (1)

-transports "dirty" lymph into lymph node from peripheral tissues
-penetrate capsule (2) of lymph node on side opposite of hilum- a shallow depression where blood vessels and nerves enter and leave organ

b. sub scapular space (3)

-afferent vessels deliver lymph to the sub scapular space, meshwork of reticular fibers, macrophages, and dendritic cells
-dendritic cells are involved in the initiation of immune response

c. outer cortex (4)

lymph next flows in outer cortex which contains B cells within germinal centers that resemble those lymphoid nodules

d. deep cortex (5)

lymph then flows through lymph sinuses to deep cortex which is dominated by T cells

e. medullary sinuses (6)

lymph continues into medullary sinuses at core of lymph nodes
-this region contains B cells & plasma cells

f. efferent lymphatic vessels (7)

-drain the "cleaned" lymph out of the lymph node and exit at the hilum.
-"exit"

-largest lymphoid organ
-performs same functions for blood that lymph nodes perform for lymph
-removes abnormal RBCs, stores iron from recycled RBCs, and initiates immune response by B cells & T cells to antigens in bloodstream

-lies along curving lateral border of stomach
-it is attached to lateral border of stomach by gastrosplenic ligament, broad band of mescentery
-outer surface, diaphragmatic surface, is smooth and convex, conforming to shape of diaphragm and body wall

-surrounded by capsule containing collagen and elastin fibers
-tears easily that seemingly minor impact to left side of abdomen can rupture capsule
-bec fragile, difficult to repair and instead typically removed by process of splenectomy

-splenic blood vessels & lymphatic vessels communicate with spleen on medial surface (aka visceral surface) at hilum
-medial surface also has 2 shallow that conform to shape of stomach (gastric area) and that of kidney (renal area)

-fibrous partitions, called trabeculae, radiate outward toward capsule through interior from hilum
-blood vessels travel within trabeculae

-cellular components within spleen constitute pulp
-red pulp: contains large quantities of RBCs
-white pulp: resembles lymphoid nodules & contain lymphocytes

the unusual circulatory arrangement within the spleen gives the phagocytes of spleen an opportunity to identify and engulf any damaged or infected cells in circulating blood

areas of densely packed lymph tissue or lymphocytes
-reticular CT: resembles areolar tissue but contains larger numbers of collagen, elastin, reticular fibers (all lymph organs)
-boundaries not distinct bec although they may cluster together & form large masses, there is no fibrous capsule surrounding them

-large lymphoid nodules in walls of pharynx
-left & right palatine tonsils: located at posterior, inferior margin or oral cavity
-pharyngeal tonsil: (aka adenoid) lies in posterior superior wall of nasopharynx
-lingual tonsils: lies deep to mucus epithelium covering base of tongue
-tubal tonsils: (Eustachian tubes) found in base of each of pharyngotympanic tubules
-tonsilitis: infected/swollen tonsils

2. mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

-protects the rest of the epithelia of digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts from pathogens & toxins

a. appendicitis

inflammation of lymphoid tissue from appendix

b. aggregated lymphoid nodules, Peyer's patches

-type of MALT, found clustered deep in epithelial lining of distal small intestine
-germinal center: central zone in each nodule which contains rapidly-dividing lymphocytes

c. bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)

consists of lymphoid follicular structures with overlying epithelial layer found along the bifurcations of bronchi, and between bronchi & arteries

-cancer originating in any lymphoid cells or tissues
-Hodgkin's lymphoma: characterized by presence of Reed-Sternberg cells and has been associated with Epstein-Barr virus in 70% of cases
-Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: all other types of lymphoma, at least 61 types

characteristics of innate body defenses

1. present & functioning at birth
2. non-specific
3. localized
4. no memory

innate immunity includes...

physical barriers, cellular defenses via phagocytes & NK cells, chemical defenses via complement, inflammatory chemicals, interferon, pyrogens

physical barriers

keep hazardous organisms and materials outside the body

integumentary system provides major physical barrier to external environment

epidermis of skin is composed of stratified squamous epithelium with keratinized cells and a network of desmosomes that lock adjacent cells together

-hairs found on most areas of body's surface provide some protection against mechanical abrasion (especially on scalp)
-prevent hazardous materials or insects from contacting skin

-epidermal surfaces receive secretions of sweat glands
-these secretions, which flush the surfaces to wash away microorganisms & chemical agents, may also contain bactericidal chemicals- defensins, destructive enzymes- lysosomes, and antibodies

-epidermal surfaces receive secretions from sebaceous glands (oil gland)
-sebum: lubricates skin, reduces amount of free water on surface of skin, creates arid environment that most microorganisms find inhospitable

mucous membranes

epithelial linings of digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts provide barrier that most organisms cannot cross

mucous membranes- A

-mucus bathes the surfaces of mucous membranes
-mucus captures most microorganisms and debris so that it cannot gain entry past delicate internal passageways

mucous membranes- B

mucous membranes also secrete chemicals that reduce growth of microorganisms: powerful acids, lysozymes, defensins

mucous membranes- C

cells of mucous membranes held together by numerous tight junctions & supported by a fibrous basal lamina

mucous membranes- D

often possess cilia that create an outward wave of movement that transports microorganisms up and out of body

mucous membranes- E

possess MALT (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue)

cellular defenses

(aka internal defenses) if hazardous organism gains entry into body, cells attack infection at site of entry

phagocytic cells

cells that engulf pathogens & cell debris should they make it past physical barriers created by skin & mucous membranes

characteristics common to all phagocytes

1. diapedesis/emigration

phagocytes can leave capillaries by squeezing between adjacent endothelial cells

2. positive chemotaxis

phagocytes are attracted to chemicals produced by infection in phenomenon

-phagocytosis always begins with attachment of phagocyte to its target cell
-receptors (allow WBC to stick to foreign body) on plasma membrane of phagocyte bind to surface of its target

4. post attachment

phagocyte may either destroy target itself or promote its destruction by activating T cells & B cells

different types of phagocytic cells

-most abundant leukocytes
-highly mobile
-quick to phagocytize cellular debris or invading bacteria
-circulate in bloodstream and roam through peripheral tissues, especially at sites of injury or infection

-less abundant than neutrophils
-limited abilities to phagocytize compared to neutrophils
-engulf foreign pathogens only if they have been coated with antibodies
*lesser degree

-less numerous than neutrophils, but more than eosinophils
-gives rise to types of macrophages: free & fixed

free macrophages

-travel throughout body
-arriving at site of injury by migrating through adjacent tissues or by recruitment from circulating blood
-ex: dendritic cells

fixed macrophages

-permanent residents of specific tissues and organs and scattered among CT
-normally do not move within these tissues
-ex: kupffer cells of liver

detect & destroy abnormal cells or virus infected cells

immunological surveillance

-generally immune system ignores body's own cells unless they become abnormal in some way such as cancer cells
-constant monitoring of normal tissues by NK cells
-NK cells are also able to recognize bacteria, foreign cells, and cells infected by viruses

in each case, the steps leading to destruction of target cells are similar:

if a cell has unusual components in its plasma membrane, NK cells recognize cell as abnormal and adhere to cell

large numbers of secretory vesicles are produced by Golgi apparatus
-perforins: vesicles that contain proteins, travel through cytoplasm toward cell surface

perforins are released at cell surface by exocytosis and diffuse across narrow gap separating NK cell from its target

perforins create holes or pores in plasma membrane of target cell so that it can no longer maintain its internal environment and it quickly disintegrates

Chemical defenses

-substances that destroy the organism
-label it as invading cell
-prevent it from reproducing in the body
-stimulate other immune system cells to respond

-example of cytokine
-secreted by lymphocytes, macrophages, and tissues infected with viruses

-when a virus is in the body, ___ are secreted to protect healthy cells
-on reaching membrane in normal cell, interferon binds to surface receptors on the cell and via second messenger, triggers production of antiviral proteins within cell's cytoplasm

antiviral proteins don't interfere with entry of viruses, instead with viral replication inside cell theory preventing spread of virus

alpha interferons

produced by viral infected cells to attract NK cells and enhance resistance to viral infection

beta interferons

secreted by fibroblast to slow inflammation in a damaged area

gamma interferons

secreted by T cells and NK cells to stimulate macrophage activity

system of 11 circulating proteins that assist, or complements, antibodies in destruction of pathogens

3. inflammatory chemicals

localized, tissue-level response that tends to limit spread of injury or infection

inflammatory response- step one

tissue damage (including impact, abrasion, distortion, chemical irritation, infection by pathogens, extreme temps) can induce inflammation

injured or infected tissues release prostaglandins, cytokines, K ions, progens, host of other "alarm chemicals"

-mast cells and basophils are activated
-release histamine & heparin

flood of chemicals into body fluids induce numerous changes

a. vasodilation

inc blood flow to site of damage

b. increased permeability

of local blood vessels causes exudate (inc in fluids leaking out of blood) to seep out of bloodstream

c. fibrin threads form a network that occludes lymph vessels

which limit removal of lymph which in turn, reduces spread of infection
-in combo with inc permeability of blood vessels, this causes swelling or edema

d. leukocytosis

stimulation of inc WBC production

e. positive chemotaxis

activated phagocytes, especially neutrophils, are attracted to site of injury where they begin phagocytizing foreign and injured cells

4 cardinal signals of inflammation

redness, heat, swelling, pain

fever-inducing chemical that elevates body temp which in turn, accelerates tissue metabolism, tissue repair, and activity of immune defenses

maintenance of body temp above 37.2 C (99 F)
-for each 1 C rise in body temp, metabolic rate jumps by 10%

b. inc body temp may be beneficial bec

it can inhibit growth & reproduction of bacteria & viruses can stimulate inc metabolism & tissue repair

c. high body temp can begin to denature proteins

which could actually shut down normal immune response

characteristics of adaptive immune defenses

1. developed as result of exposure
2. specific (recognize & attack one infection w/ one specific antigen)
3. systemic (can attack infection everywhere not just origin)
4. memory
5. versatile (cells clone and take on different roles in immune response to infection)
6. tolerance

2 main types of adaptive immunity

cell mediated & antibody mediated

cell mediated immunity properties

a. provided by action of T cells
b. antigen must be processed and presented to T cells by antigen presenting cells (APCs)/infected body cells
c. MHC proteins (major histocompatibility complexes): antigen presentation occurs when glycoproteins on surface of APCs or body cells display antigen or a piece of antigen

Class I MHC proteins

-on every cell
-to allow body cells infected with virus to alert immune system that they've been attacked by infection and reveal identity of their attacker

Class II MHC proteins

-immune system cells
-found on membranes of APCs
-allow APCs to alert body that infection has been discovered and stimulate other immune system cells to rush to site of infection to help with attack

antigen-class II MHC complex

can only be recognized by cell that possesses a special CD4 marker
-only cells that possess CD4 marker are CD4 T cells that differentiate to form TH cells & memory TH cells

Class I MHC proteins that bind to...

foreign antigen & stimulate only cells that possess CD8 makers- differentiate to form TC cells, TS cells, memory TC cells

when TC cells recognizes antigen-MHC class I complex,

cytotoxic T cells destroy "sick" body cell by perforins

by activation of genes within body cell which trigger apoptosis of body cell, and disruption of cell's metabolism through release of ____

gamma interferons

TH cells or CD4 T cells, produce cytokines that stimulate proliferation of all other immune cell types (including more phagocytic cells, T cells, B cells) to join attack against infection

cytotoxic T cells

TC cells, aka killer T cells; stimulated by infected body cells and helper T cells to attack virus-infected body cells and cancer cells

suppressor T cells

TS cells shutdown activity of T cells and B cells once infection has been conquered by secretion of suppression factors

properties of antibody mediated immunity

1. B cells
2. aka humoral immunity (bec B cells attack infection or their antigens while in body fluids)
3. clonal expansion

antibody structure

1. four polypeptide chains- held together by disulfide bonds
2. each of 4 chains has constant region where amino acid sequence is the same and variable region where amino acid sequence is unique
3. free tips of 2 variable segments form antigen binding sites of antibody molecules
4. antigen-antibody complex is formed when antibody molecule binds to its corresponding antigen molecules

a. antigenic determinant sites

antibodies bind not to entire antigen, but to specific portions of its exposed surface-regions

b. complete antigen

antigen with at least 2 antigenic determinant sites, one for each of the antigen binding sites on antibody molecule

c. partial antigen

-or haptens, does not ordinarily cause B cell activation
-however, they may become attached to carrier molecules, forming combinations that can function as complete antigens

immunoglobulins (Igs)

-5 different classes
-classes are determined by differences in structure of heavy-chain constant regions and have no effect on antibody's specificity, which is determined by antigen binding sites out on variable regions of chains

-dimer found primarily in granular secretions such as mucus, tears, saliva, breast milk, sweat, semen
-these antibodies attack pathogens before they gain access to internal tissues

-monomer found on surface of B cells where it can bind antigens in extracellular fluids
-this binding plays a role in sensitization of B cells so that it proliferates to form clone army

-monomer that attaches as individual molecule to exposed surfaces of basophils & mast cells which initiate inflammatory response via histamine & heparin

-account for 80% of all antibodies
-antibodies are responsible for resistance against many viruses, bacteria, bacterial toxins
-monomers and can cross placenta
-cause the effects of HDN, hemolytic disease of newborn

-pentamer secreted after antigen is encountered
-concentrations decline as IgG production accelerates
-anti-A & anti-B antibodies responsible for agglutination of incompatible blood types
-first to respond to infection

when a B cell encounters its specific antigen in body fluids, it prepares to undergo activation

primary response

-activated B cell begins to proliferate rapidly forming a "clone" army
-this initial response to exposure to antigen
-bec antigen must activate appropriate B cells, primary response takes time to develop

during primary response, level of antibody activity in plasma, doesn't peak until one or two weeks after initial exposure

-secrete free antibodies that attack the current infection and/or antigens of infection
-apoptosis: programmed cell death
-antibodies secreted by plasma cells (which can be as many as 100 million antibodies per hour) remain in circulation for extended amount of time after infection is over

-remain in reserve and are primed to respond quickly to subsequent exposures to infections with same antigens
-next time same infection is encountered memory B cells generate a faster and more efficient response
-aka secondary response- antibody titers inc more rapidly and reach levels many times greater than they did in primary response
-secondary response triggered even if second exposure occurs years after primary exposure

humoral immunity- active

person makes their own antibodies giving them long-term immunity

naturally acquired active immunity

-person makes their own antibodies in response to natural exposure to antigens in environment
-ex: getting chicken pox from classmate
-infection; contact with pathogen

artificially acquired active immunity

-develops after administration of antigen to purposely expose someone to antigen
-administration of antigen stimulates immune system to make antibodies against infection
-ex: vaccinations

humoral immunity- passive

antibodies are generated by someone or something else which provides short-term immunity

naturally acquired passive immunity

-person receives antibodies from another person by participating in natural activity
-ex: infant getting antibodies from their mother through breast milk
-mother to fetus via placenta

artificially acquired passive immunity

-antibodies produced by someone else are purposely given to the person to provide immunity
-ex: anti-venom or gamma globulin
-injection of immune serum (gamma globulin)

immune response against pathogens

-antibodies use many different mechanisms to destroy target antigens
-bec each antibody can perform a different function, they're said to be versatile

a. complement activation

-upon binding to antigen, portions of antibody molecule change shape, exposing areas that bind complement proteins
-the bound complement molecules then activate the complement system which destroys antigen by lysis or enhancing phagocytosis

b. opsonization

antibodies can coat surface of pathogens so the pathogens become "sticky" and are more susceptible to phagocytosis

c. phagocytosis

antigens covered with antibodies attract neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils- cells that phagocytize pathogens and destroy foreign or abnormal plasma membranes

d. precipitation & agglutination

-if antigens are close together, antibody can bind to antigenic determinant sites on 2 different antigens
-in this way antibodies can clump large numbers of antigen together
-when target antigen is on surface of a cell or virus- agglutination
-when target antigen is non-cellular, clumping is called precipitation

e. neutralization

-both viruses & bacterial toxins must bind to plasma membrane of body cells before they can enter or injure those cells
-antibodies can block binding sites so viruses or toxins cannot bind to body cells

f. prevents pathogen adhesion

-antibodies dissolved in saliva, mucus, sweat, and tears coat epithelial cells, providing an additional layer of defense.
-A covering of antibodies makes it difficult for bacterial and viruses to adhere to penetrate body surfaces.

g. inflammation

antibodies may promote inflammation by stimulating release of histamine & herapin from basophils and mast cells

immunodeficiency

deficient numbers of immune system cells

1. severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) syndrome

congenital condition that results from genetic disorder leading to deficits in both B & T cells

2. acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

-caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a condition that destroys helper T cells thus depressing cell-mediated immunity
-most patients die of opportunistic infections such as flu or pneumonia

occurs when antibody response is so severe it causes tissue damage as it fights off perceived infection, or allergen, that would otherwise be harmless to body (pollen or pet dander)

1. immediate hypersensitivity (type I)

-begins with seconds of exposure and lasts half to one hour
-ex: anaphylactic shock & allergic rhinitis

2. subacute hypersensitivity (type II-III)

-onset is 1-3 hours after exposure and the duration is 10-15 hours
-ex: type II- transfusion of mismatched blood
type III- farmer's lung

3. delayed hypersensitivity (type IV)

-occurs within 1-3 days and lasts for a week or more
-ex: contact dermatitis such as poison ivy & tuberculosis skin test

autoimmune disease

-occurs B cells make antibodies against normal body tissues
-autoantibodies: misguided antibodies

multiple sclerosis

autoantibodies attack white matter of nervous system leading to demyelination of neurons which can cause weakness or even paralysis

rheumatoid arthritis

autoantibodies destroy CT associated with joints or joint capsules

systemic lupus erythematosus

autoantibodies attack many organs

grave's disease

autoantibodies attack thyroid tissue causing excess production of thyroxine

type I diabetes mellitus

aka insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (or IDDM), antibodies attack pancreatic cells that produce insulin

glomerulonephritis

autoantibodies attack kidneys leading to renal dysfunction

myasthenia gravis

attack ACh receptor at neuromuscular junctions leading to debilitating muscle weakness

graft rejection

-results from tissues, organs, or blood transplants that aren't compatible with tissues of recipient
-recognized as non-self & attacked
-in order to reduce rejection, best possible match is sought and immunosuppressive drugs are used

tissues from the same person

tissues from genetically identical twins

tissues from non-genetically identical persons

tissues from organisms of different species

cells that remain in circulation long after infection is over to respond to future infections by same pathogen

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