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Neuroanatomy exam 1a LECTURE 1-5

Terms in this set (185)

Medulla oblongata has what structures?
Rostral:OPEN MEDULLA
Caudal: CLOSE MEDULLA
Parts of the brain stem
midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
...
Welgert stain, stains what matter?
white matter(myelin)
areas with gray matter would not be stained
Everything in front of the central sulcus has ___________function
motor/ executive function
Everything in behind of the central sulcus has ___________function
sensory function
brain imaging
Computed axial tomography(CAT)
Use x-rays
Quick, most useful for brain injuries
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
targets the flow of water
•variation of MRI that measures restricted diffusion of water
•image white matter and trace axonal pathways
Angiography
•administer radio-opaque tracer and image with X-rays(tracer thru artery so X ray can detect and capture image of arteriers)
structural Magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI)
•detection of magnetic fields and radio waves
•no ionizing radiation or radioactive tracers
•Expensive,
patients cannot have metal, be claustrophobic, or be uncooperative
3 different planes for MRI
horizontal (axial or transverse) plane
sagittal plane
Coronal(frontal plane)
CNS is made up of
brain and spinal cord
Central sulcus from longitudinal fissure down to the
lateral fissure
rostral vs caudal aka
head vs tail
Thalamus sits right on top of brainstem but it is part of the
cerebrum
the frontal lobe sits in what fossa?
the anterior fossa
the brainstem sits in what fossa?
the middle cranial fossa
Cerebellum sits in the
posterior cranial fossa
Level of the neuraxis
spinal cord
brainstem
thalamus
forebrain
sensory neurons
inputs to CNS from PNS
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Dendrites
They are receptive elements
Receive messages from other cells
Axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
neuronal bodies
nucleus, projections to that nucleus are afferent
efferents are axons that take the signal out
Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes are glial cells found in
white and gray matter
White matter is a collection of myelinated and unmyelinated axons that conduct signals from one area of gray matter to another. What cell bodies can be recognized in white matter?
A. Cell bodies of glial cells.
The spinal nerves consist of ventral and dorsal roots. Where are the cell bodies of the axons in each root?
Ventral root cell bodies are in the gray matter of the spinal cord and dorsal root cell bodies are in ganglia
Ventral root cell bodies are in the
gray matter of the spinal cord
dorsal root cell bodies are in
ganglia
For cerebral cortex gray matter is on the__________ & __________ is on the inside
outside
white matter
In spinal cord white matter on the outside and gray ?
on inside
Nissl stains
gray matter (neuronal perikarya)
BRAIN IMAGING
Functional INCLUDES:
•functional MRI (fMRI)

•positron emission tomography (PET)

•single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
BRAIN IMAGING
•functional MRI (fMRI)
•blood flow changes
•low invasive, lack of radiation, wide availability
BRAIN IMAGING
•positron emission tomography (PET)
•use of injected radioligands to trace metabolism and activity of specific substances(e.g-glucose & dopamine)
•focus on specific functional and neurotransmitters
Cons:
use of tracers with short half-lives
use of radioisotopes, and expense
BRAIN IMAGING
•positron emission tomography (PET)
positron-labeled 18F-deoxyglucose (an isoform of glucose)
•modified glucose is incorporated and trapped in neuronal cytoplasm
•taken up in direct relation to energy demand

positron-labeled 18F-DOPA (a precursor of dopamine)
•loss of signal (reduced amount of sequestered l-DOPA (down 85% in putamen & 30% in caudate nucleus)
•hence reduced amount of dopamine
•single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
•like PET, but uses gamma ray emitting radioisotopes
•longer half-lived tracers than PET
Cons:
radioisotopes, expensive, and poor resolution, ~1 cm
After a fall, a 5-year-old child lost consciousness and was rushed to the Emergency Room. Imaging studies were produced to assess the possibility of a subdural hematoma. Which procedure would be the best to identify such damage?

A.Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
B.X-ray
C.Angiogram
D.Computerized tomography (CT)
E.Positron emission tomography (PET)
D.Computerized tomography (CT)
NOTE: it is a structural change
This boy had a horizontal gaze defect. You suspect that this results from damage to the connection between visual cortex in the occipital lobe and the frontal eye fields in the frontal lobe. Which orientation for the images would be best to identify potential damage?

A.Mid-sagittal
B.Coronal
C.Frontal
D.Horizontal
D.Horizontal
2. Which of the following features separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe?

A.Central sulcus
B.Lateral fissure
C.Longitudinal fissure
D.Calcarine fissure
E.Falx cerebri
A.Central sulcus
4. A 9-yr-old boy was playing baseball. He missed a catch and the ball hit the skull over his eye. A few days later, he exhibited lethargy and some differences in his ability to make decisions. Which cerebral lobe was most likely affected?
Frontal lobe
5. While immediately after the incident, an imaging study showed no anatomical differences were detected, a week later, the child was screened for anatomical damage. Which imaging method was most likely used?
A.Angiography
B.Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
C.X-ray detection
D.Structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI)
Positron emission tomography (PET
A.Structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI)
6. Occipital cortex is a processing center in the visual system? It receives axonal projections from the thalamus, specifically the lateral geniculate nucleus. From the perspective of occipital cortex, these thalamic axons are referred to as which of the following?
A.Local connections
B.Sensory inputs
C.Motor outputs
D.Efferents
E.Afferents
E.Afferents
fluid-filled spaces at the core of the CNS?
ventricles
The fluids found int the ventricles is called
cerebrospinal fluid
This fluid is found in cerebral cortex all the way done to the spinal cord
They extend from the telencephalon through all levels of the neuraxis to the coccygeal spinal cord
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM
Ventricles has relations to what structures
cerebral cortex
hippocampal fornix/formation
Thalamus
Periaquedutal gray
caudate nucleus
Ventricles have a convoluted shape and it is represented at each level of the
neuraxis
Ventricles structure
anterior horns
body
posterior horn inferior horns
Parts of ventricles is found in every lobe
interventricular foramen
connects lateral ventricles to third ventricle
fourth ventricle
small triangular chamber between pons and cerebellum
It has a:
Lateral aperture
Medial aperture
2 lateral apertures and 1 median aperture
How fourth ventricle communicates w/subarachnoid space surrounding brain and spinal cord
cerebral aqueduct
connects third and fourth ventricles; separates corpora quadragemina from cerebral peduncles
VENTRICULAR ANATOMY
Ventricular horns
corpus callosum
A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them.
superior cistern (quadrigeminal)
outside of the brain
posterior commissure separates
ventricles from the superior cistern (quadrigeminal)
septum pellucidum
Medial wall of lateral ventricle
A thin membrane that separates the lateral ventricles anteriorly.
choroid plexus of third ventricle
produces cerebrospinal fluid
The ventricular system is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
What is the role of CSF in the CNS?
provides buoyancy to the brain
provides protection against mechanical effects of turning head and impacts
provides chemical stability
prevents ischemia
minimizes accumulation of harmful substances in the nervous tissue
serves as a medium for chemical signaling
CSF serves as a medium for chemical signaling by
periventricular neurons secrete transmitters into CSF and the circulation carries them to different regions.
intrathecal (in arachnoid space) drugs applied via this route.
CSF chemical signaling
periventricular neurons secrete transmitters into
CSF and the circulation carries them to different regions.
CSF chemical signaling:
drugs applied via this route.
intrathecal (in arachnoid space)
CHOROID PLEXUS:
•Where do you find the factories generating CSF?
FOUND IN ROOF OF ALL THESE VENTRICLES:
-Paired lateral ventricles(esp. interventricular foramen, body of trigone and inferior horns)
-3rd venticle:roof of thalamus
-4th ventricle
•What is the composition of choroid plexus?
•Choroid plexus is a specialized part of pia mater
•Pia fuses with ependyma to form the tela choroidea
•Tela choroidea that is vascularized is the choroid plexus
•That is, choroid plexus is where the ependyma is vascularized by capillaries
•Pia fuses with ependyma to form the
tela choroidea
•Tela choroidea that is vascularized is the
choroid plexus
tela choroidea
Vascular fringes of pia mater covered by ependymal cells that invaginate into ventricular cavities via choroid fissures, forming choroid plexus
choroid plexus is where the ependyma is
vascularized by capillaries
•Total amount of CSF in subarachnoid space and ventricular system is
~150 ml
•CSF is produced at a rate of _________
•________ of CSF is produced each day
~0.35 ml/min
~500 ml
total CSF volume turns over every
•6½ hours
In choroid plexus capillaries are:
fenestrated with no tight junction
•Ependyma are sealed by tight junctions forming:
a barrier between brain and the CSF. To prevent constant leaking of CSF fluid
•Active secretion of CSF Through ependyma, ependymal microvilli :
increases release surface
choroid plexus, ventricular system, and foramina is found within
the brain
subarachnoid space and arachnoid granulations are found
outside the brain & in the spinal cord
arachnoid granulations (villi)
finger-like projections of arachnoid mater that drains CSF unidirectionally into dural sinuses/veins
Hydrocephalus
an EXCESS OF CSF inside the cranial cavity.
Not able to circulate CSF efficiently especially between subarachnoid space & arachnoid granulation
Hydrocephalus causes
Obstruction of CSF flow
-from the lateral ventricle to the third ventricle
-from the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle
-from the fourth ventricle to the subarachnoid space
Overproduction of CSF
Decreased absorption through arachnoid granulations(Impaired drainage of CSF)
2 types of hydrocephalus
Communicating:
all part of ventricles and subarachnoid space exhibit increased intracranial pressure
Non-communicating:
Only parts of ventricular system exhibits increased intracranial pressure(no increased pressure in subarachnoid space)
Results from an obstruction of:
-interventricular foramen
-cerebral aqueduct
-foramina of 4th ventricle
A 3-year-old boy exhibits an enlarged head. Pressure in the lateral ventricles is elevated, but the pressure in the subarachnoid space is normal. What is most likely cause of this defect?

A.Blockage of CSF filtration at the arachnoid granulations
B. Blockage of CSF drainage at the denticulate ligaments
C. Blockage of CSF flow through the cerebral aqueduct
D. Blockage of CSF flow through the medial foramen of Magendie
E. Blockage of CSF production in the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle
C. Blockage of CSF flow through the cerebral aqueduct
A 45-year-old woman has Parkinson's Disease. She is given a systemically administered dopamine-mimetic medication for the tremors and rigidity. In order to gain access to the brain, the medication must pass which of the following barriers?

A.gap junctions between dura mater cells
B. tight junctions between astrocytic endfeet
C. tight junctions between blood capillary endothelia
D. inter-ependymal desmosomes
E. inter-neuronal synapses
C. tight junctions between blood capillary endothelia
CSF-Blood barrier is composed of:
Barrier composed of
•Tight junctions
~ among pia, surface astrocytes, or ependyma ~
•Basement membrane
•Astrocyte end feet
•Structure of blood-brain barrier
-Tight junction between capillary endothelial cells
-basement membrane
-endothelium
-Glia process (w/ foot process on top of capillaries)
Key components BBB:
•carrier-mediated transports carry water-soluble substances:
•specific transporters actively pump :
-(e.g., glucose and some amino acids) into brain
-organic acids from the brain
-Despite comprising only 2% of body weight, brain consumes 20-25%
of total calories ingested daily
the brain uses only
_______________as an energy source
glucose
Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow- between 60 & 160 mmHg includes:
•pressure regulation(via sensors in carotid sinus)= baroreceptors
ionic regulation (via sensors in carotid body)=chemoreceptors
pressure regulation(via sensors in carotid sinus)= baroreceptors
low pressure--> cause vasoconstriction to get BP to normal
High pressure cause--> vasodilation to get BP to normal
•ionic regulation (via sensors in carotid body):
-sensitive to partial pressure of O2 and CO2, pH, and temperature
-likely mediated through CN IX and medulla
why is there tight regulation of cerebral blood flow?
-protect fragile microcirculation
-maintain integrity of blood-brain barrier
What diffuses passively thru BBB?
small lipid-soluble molecules and blood gases (e.g., O2 and CO2)
NOTE:highly charged, large, and not lipid soluble molecules cannot enter brain
BBB (blood brain barrier) serves as a carrier by
delivering nutrients to the brain
•essential nutrients (e.g., glucose and amino acids) require specific transport proteins
BBB brain capillaries have
•Tight junction
•No vesicles
•No transcytosis
•No fenestrations
No gaps or gap junctions
Dopamine is unable to cross the BBB but its precursor
L-DOPA(levadopa) can and once it is in CNS it is converted to dopamine
Which of the following is a common feature of the blood-brain barrier, the CSF-brain barrier, and the CSF-choroid plexus barrier?

A.Gap junctions among adjacent glia that form the barriers
B. Tight junctions among the cells that line the fluid-filled space
C. Innervation of the pia mater
D. Opening of the CSF-brain barrier in the choroid plexus
E. Loosening of tight junctions among ependyma
B. Tight junctions among the cells that line the fluid-filled space
Delivery modes of drugs to the brain
-Delivery modes
•Nanoparticles
•Liposomes
•Focused ultrasound
•Metabolic precursors
PHARMACOLOGICAL
CHALLENGES
______ of small particles do not cross the BBB
_______of larger particles (e.g., growth factors, peptides, immunochemicals, and designer genes)
-98% of small particles do not cross the BBB
-100%
purpose of blood brain barrier
1.control microenvironment of neurons
-maintain ionic composition and protein content of extracellular fluids
-essential for axonal conductance and synaptic transmission
2.protect brain from auto-immune response
3.paracellular (endothelial barrier restricting free movement of water-soluble compounds)
4.inhibiting transport of substances into cytoplasm -transcellular barrier (low amounts of endocytosis and transcytosis)
5.enzymatic barrier (degrade multiple compounds such as neurotransmitters and drugs
WEAK
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIERS
•Provide
-sensation of circulating substances
-facilitate release of substances of action
•Have fenestrated capillaries
Circumventricular organs
all circumventricular organs are
midline structures
circumventricular organs
weak areas of BBB so brain can monitor blood quality
circumventricular organs include:
Receptive: ASV
Effector:SMPP
Receptive:
•area postrema (4th ventricle)
•subfornical organ (3rd ventricle)
*vascular organ of the lamina terminalis
Effector:
•subcommissural organ
•medial eminence
•posterior pituitary
•pineal gland
Area Postrema (4th Ventricle)
-Emesis center
Chemoreceptor trigger zone initiating vomiting when there are changes in plasma concentration
subfornical organ (3rd ventricle)
•circulating angiotensin II acts here to increase water intake
vascular organ of the lamina terminalis (OVLT)
-Sensory for osmoregulation
A specialized region of the hypothalamus containing neurons that are osmoreceptors, being sensitive to the osmotic pressure of the blood.
subcommissural organ
•generates fibers that maintain patency of cerebral aqueduct
medial eminence
secrete regulatory hormones (releasing factors)
posterior pituitary
secretes hormones into blood
ADH and oxytocin
pineal gland
produces and secretes melatonin for circadian rhythm regulation
Common CNS herniations:
Subfalcine
Common headache
contralateral leg weakness
Common CNS herniations:
Transtentorial
Oculomotor CNIII paresis(ipsilateral dilated pupil, abnormal EOM's)
Contralateral hemiparesion
Common CNS herniations:
Tonsillar
Obtundation(less alertness)
Cell proliferation generally occurs in zones that
line the ventricular system(ventricles and central canal)
Proliferative zone called the
ependymal, germinal, or ventricular zone
cell proliferation in CNS
Spongioblasts vs. neuroblasts
Columnar epithelium vs. pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Stem Cells
multipotential and replicable
Direction of differentiation of neurons defined by
the environment
growth factors - pro-mitogenic and anti-mitogenic
extracellular matrix - substrate for next steps
BIRTHDATING STUDIES
Inside to outside sequence
first cells distributed deep in the structure, e.g., cortex
newer cells move to more superficial positions
newest cells at periphery
Orderly sequence (inside-to-outside) Results from
sequence and process of neuronal migration
Neuronal migration starts with
exit from cell cycle
It is an active process
NEURONAL MIGRATION in 2 types
-Radially directed migration
-Tangentially directed migration
NEURONAL MIGRATION
-Radially directed migration includes:
*Guided by radial glial fibers
Spongioblasts/neuroblasts
Physical scaffold
*Goaded by extracellular environment
Cell adhesion molecules (nCAM and L1)
Reelin
Growth factors
DEFECTS IN neuronal migration can be at the:
origination and termination site
Defects in neuronal migration leads to:
-NEUROGLIAL LEPTOMENINGIAL HETEROTOPIAS
-LISSENCEPHALY
Lissencephaly (agyria) is usually due to
reelin deficiency
Lissencephaly
-Smooth surface - poor gyration, only principal fissures
-Thicker cortex; piling up of post-migratory neurons
-Inverted lamination
•Total absence of reelin causes
•Lissencephaly
•Inversion of cortical layers
Reelin
•Regulates neuronal migration
•Modulates synaptic plasticity via long-term potentiation (LTP)
•Stimulates dendritic development
-tells radial glial cells how to align in radial fashion
neuronal death
•Overproduced neurons culled by active (ATP-dependent) process - suicide
Release of apoptosomes
-Blebbed cytoplasm and nucleoplasm
Remnants phagocytosized by astrocytes
Growth factor Neurotrophin is required for survival and
Axonal/dendritic growth
-Nerve growth factor
-Brain-derived neurotrophic factor
-Neurotrophin 3, 4/5
Growth factors also includes receptor mediated signaling
Proteins involved in neuronal death include:
Fas ligand
Tumor necrosis factor
Mitochondrial activity
(Bcl, Bax, p53)
Many are oncogenes/oncoproteins
NEUROEMBRYOLOGY
•Only_____________is source of nervous system
ectoderm
•Primitive streak and organizer (Hensen's node)
•Generation of neural groove and neural tube
•Growth of anlage
•Differential amounts of cell proliferation, migration, and death
•Contribute to changes in early CNS growth
•Flexures, vesicles, thin or thick regions
Rostral(toward head) end of neural tube develops into
brainstem and cerebrum
Induction of neural plate/groove/tube by
Notochord primarily, then mesoderm
•node of Hensen (organizer)
•elongates rostrally and caudally
Spinal cord development includes:
•Prototype of CNS development
•Four columns of gray matter
Alar Plate=sensory
Basal plate= motor
Alar plate(sensory) includes
General somatic afferent(GSA):cutaneous input
General visceral afferent(GVA):
•Input from glands and gut
basal plate(motor) includes
General somatic efferent(GSE):Output to skeletal muscle
General visceral afferent(GVE):•Parasympathetic output to glands and gut
The sulcus limitans is flanked by
A.Motor columns.
B.Sensory columns.
C.Somatic columns.
D.Visceral columns.
E.A somatic and a visceral column.
D.Visceral columns.
Open posterior neuropore caused by
poor induction by neural tube on mesoderm
-Spina Bifida:split spine
spina bifida occulta
most common and least severe form of spina bifida without protrusion of the spinal cord or meninges
Spina bifida Meningocoele
-Least common
-Spinal column has opening through which protective membranes stick out
-Cord & nerves in proper place
Spina bifida Myelomeningocoele
-Most severe
-Large opening in spinal column
-Cord & nerves stick out
spina bifida
a congenital defect that occurs during early pregnancy when the spinal canal fails to close completely around the spinal cord to protect it
spina bifida caused by lack of closure of spinal cord during
27th week of gestation
Folic acid deficiency causes
neural tube defects
-Elevated serum [a-fetoprotein]
Elevated serum a-fetoprotein leads to
neural defects
Clinical Presentations of spinal cord defect
Motor and sensory problems in lower limbs
Difficulty walking, particularly in severe cases (i.e., meningomyelocoele)
Bladder and bowel problems
If cranial complications, thinner cortex leads to problems with executive function (frontal lobe), mathematical abilities (parietal lobe), and learning disability
Abnormal anterior neuropore development leads to
Microencephaly and anencephaly
microencephaly
small brain
Anencephaly
defect in closure of the cephalic portion of the neural tube that results in incomplete development of the brain and bones of the skull; the most drastic neural tube defect usually results in a stillbirth
primary vesicles
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
secondary vesicles
telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, myelencephalon
Adult derivative of telencephalon wall:
cavity:
wall: cerebral hemisphere
cavity: lateral ventricles
Adult derivative of diencephalon wall:
cavity:
wall:thalami
cavity: 3rd ventricle
Adult derivative of mesencephalon wall:
cavity:
wall:midbrain
cavity: aqueduct
Adult derivative of metencephalon wall:
cavity:
wall: Pons & cerebellum
cavity:upper part of 4th ventricle
Adult derivative of myelencephalon
wall:
cavity:
wall:medulla
cavity:lower part of 4th ventricle
pontine flexure
between the metencephalon(pons) and myelencephalon(medulla)
induction of rhombic lip
cerebellar anlage
Dandy-Walker syndrome
associated with
-Spina Bifida
-Hydrocephalus(esp Noncommunicating )
symptoms of dandy walker syndrome
-increased intracranial pressure
-vomiting, convulsions, and irritability
-Unsteadiness poor coordination, jerky eye movements
Dandy-Walker syndrome
Rare, congenital malformation involving the cerebellum
-Partial or complete absence of vermis
-Malformed(enlarged) 4th ventricle and dysmorphic cisterna magna
Forebrain development
C-shaped structures:
Cerebral cortex
Caudate nucleus
Lateral Ventricles
Hippocampal-fornical system
Amygdala-stria terminalis
Forebrain development
•Bilateral pair of vesicles
Cerebral hemispheres
-neural nuclei
-cerebral cortex
-ventricles
Which association of a developmental event and a defect is most correct?
A.Cell proliferation - lissencephaly
B.Cell migration - heterotopia
C.Folic acid deficiency - hydrocephalus
D.Neuronal death - inverted cortical laminae
E.Closure of the anterior neuropore - spina bifida
B.Cell migration - heterotopia
Problems with developmental events:
Migration
lissencephaly and heterotopias
•Problems with developmental events:
Death
altered nuclear size
Problems with developmental events:
Proliferation
microencephaly
PROBLEMS WITH Closure of neuropore
•Rachischisis - spina bifida
•Anencephaly
•Problems with neuroectoderm (mesoderm) induction
-spina bifida
-Dandy walker syndrome
Which closes first the anterior neuropore or the posterior neuropore?
-the anterior(cranial) neuropore around day 25
- posterior(caudal) neuropore closes at day 28
Which association of a developmental and adult structure is correct?
A.Rhombencephalon - spinal cord
B.Mesencephalon - midbrain
C.Telencephalon - thalamus
D.Myelencephalon - cerebellum
E.Diencephalon - paired cerebral hemispheres
B.Mesencephalon - midbrain
Developmental neuropsychiatric disorders:
• Behavioral
Autism Spectrum Disorder(ASD)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD)
Developmental neuropsychiatric disorders:
Learning disabilities (old term: mental retardation)
Down syndrome
Fragile X syndrome
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder(FASD)
syndrome
A group of associated symptoms
Consistently expressed as a unit
e.g- down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, & FASD
spectrum disorder:
mental disorder
a disorder whose symptoms, abilities, and characteristics are expressed in many different combinations and in any degree of severity
-A constellation of symptoms
-Not all symptoms are expressed in every affected individual
-severity of symptoms varies among affected individuals
Spectrum disorder:
mental disorder
Barker Hypothesis
-conditions/exposures to substances during pregnancy have long term effects on adult health
-Symptoms are often quiescent for many years
-Explains life-long risks to HTN, Type II DM, obesity, and cardiovascular
fetal programming
In early fetal development there are changes in body structure and function caused by environmental stimuli.
-When pregnant mother is malnourished fetus changes its body structure and function to prepare for harsh conditions.
When the environment switches from the adverse conditions, e.g., malnutrition, to a situation of abundant supply, this exposes the baby to an environment that goes against what its body is designed for.--> to risk of disease as an adult
Fetal programming
Relation to olfaction and gustation
Exposure to odor in infancy has long term effect on aversion/preference for that substance as an adult. "the broccoli test"
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