Upgrade to remove ads
Only $35.99/year

Psych 440 final 4 chapters

Terms in this set (165)

What is Personality?
-"the most adequate conceptualization of a person's behavior in all its detail"
-"consistent behavior patterns and intrapersonal processes originating within the individual"
-"an individual's unique constellation of psychological traits and states"
What causes personality?
...
Behavior measures of personality
role-playing, observation, situation performance, biofeedback
PROBLEM: self-monitoring, contrast effects, halo effect
Traits
any relatively enduring characteristic of an individual that distinguishes that person from another
-openness, etc
States
a temporary, or transient presentation of some personality trait or disposition
-sad, calm,
Types
defined as unique sets of traits and states that are similar in pattern to an identified category of personality within a taxonomy of personalities
The Four Temperaments
-sanguine: temperament of blood, season of spring, element of air
-choleric: yellow bile, summer, fire
-melancholic: black bile, autumn, earth
-phlegmatic: phlegm, winter, water
Sanguine organ function
associated with functioning of the liver (blood), makes a person optimistic and cheerful
Choleric organ function
associated with the spleen; easily angered, bad-tempered, controlling
Melancholic organ function
associated with the gall bladder; perfectionistic, depressive
Phlegmatic organ function
associated with the lungs; calm and unemotional
Six (Modern) Approaches To
Personality
Psychoanalytic
Trait
Biological
Humanistic
Behavioral/Social Learning
Cognitive
Psychoanalytic
unconscious minds are largely responsible for important differences in behavior styles
Trait
people can be described along a continuum of various personality characteristics
Biological
inherited predispositions and physiological processes explain individual differences
Humanistic
keys to individual differences are degree of personal responsibility and self-acceptance
Behavioral/Social
consistent differences are the result of conditioning and expectations
Cognitive
differences are the result of the way people process information and explain differences in behavior
How are Personality Assessments Used?
Employment Matching
Adjustment issues for decisions about military service
Academic opportunities
Employment mobility
Diagnoses, or degree of impact from some trauma
Inform treatments
Research and Validation of theory
Assessment Methods
Interviews
Behavioral Observations
Behavior Rating Scales
Self-Report Scales
Projective/Expressive Techniques
Intellectual Tests
Objective Tests
-Paper-and-pencil or computer-aided
-Choose a response from options that represent various characteristics of personality
-Procedures for scoring require little judgment
-Allows for implementation of a variety of validity indices
Objective Test Advantages
-answered quickly
-can be scored quickly/reliably
-breadth of knowledge
-can be administered in groups or individuals
Common Objective Tests
...
Lexical Hypothesis and Personality
-key personality concepts are encoded in language
-Data reduction (factor analysis) - used to determine the underlying structure of psychological traits
-supports the five-factor model of personality (OCEAN)
Self-Reports of Personality - advantages
-If individual is insightful and honest, results may be extremely valuable
-cost effective
Self-Reports of Personality - Disadvantages
-Results may be intentionally distorted
-Results may be unintentionally distorted
Distorted Response Patterns
Faking Good/Social Desirability
Faking Bad/Malingering
Deviance
Acquiescence
Non-acquiescence
Extreme scores
Gambling or Cautiousness
How do we Measure Honesty? - Validity scales
gauge degree of honesty in response pattern by comparing scores to a criterion group
Measuring Response Style
-Consistency of response/Fatigue
-Response set
Having Others do the Rating - Advantages
May circumvent problems with self-
report, such as "faking good/bad"
-May be appropriate when individual is unavailable or refuses assessment
Having Others do the Rating -Disadvantages
-Because of limited interactions, correct for only those contexts they have those interactions
-Leniency/generosity (halo effect), severity, or central tendency error
Tools of Measure Development
-Theory - items and format determined by
what is deemed important in the theory
-Data Reduction - use of factor analysis and
other methods to identify traits
-Logic and Reason - expert uses knowledge
of personality to develop items
-Criterion Groups
Criterion Groups
reference sample with some characteristic to be compared to a general sample
-contrasting patients with schizophrenia with normal adults
-contrasting incumbents in an occupation with a general sample of working adults
Empirically-keyed scales are heterogeneous
-Not all items will be highly correlated. -low internal consistency (alphas)• -potentially no face validity
Theory based scales are homogenous
-Will generally have strong face validity
-Will have high internal consistency
Clinical assessment
objective vs. subjective
consider client's background
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
Normal Personality?
...
Cautions with Personality Assessment
Culture can be a powerful influence if:
• English is a second language
• The test is translated to another language
• The test is not properly normed for the
individual's cultural group
Know your contrasts
Traits vs. States (and Types)• Self-ratings vs. observer ratings• Empirical vs. theory based scales
Know your measures
MMPI
NEO
MBTI
Tests like the MMPI and MCMI are used to
assess psychopathology
Tests like the NEO and MBTI are used to
assess "normal personality"
MMPI
-the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests -Originally developed to identify emotional disorders
-566 T/F
-10 clinical scales
-employs several validity indices
NEO
Used for: Understanding clients' strengths,
weaknesses and interpersonal style
-levels of emotional well-being, to help establish rapport and empathy
MBTI - A theory based approach
-Four bi-polar dimensions based on Jung's theory of archetypes
-Introvert-Extrovert: Flow of energy is either inward or outward
-Sensing-Intuition: Perception of data is either from the senses or from insights
-Thinking-Feeling: Decision making is either objective (rational) or subjective (emotional)
-Judging-Perceiving: Works step-by-step (judging) or more impulsively
What is Intelligence?
-involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas,
-Reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings than simple academic learning
Some Common Misconceptions About Intelligence Tests
-Intelligence tests measure innate ability
-IQs are fixed and cannot change over time
-Intelligence tests tell us all we need to know about a person's intelligence
-All intelligence tests measure the same underlying capacity
-IQ scores from different measures are interchangeable
Jean Esquirol was the first scientist to make distinction between
mental incapacity and mental illness in 1938
Frances Galton wrote Hereditary Genius in 1869 and set forth the idea of
inherited mental characteristics
James McKeen Cattell coined the term
"mental test" in 1890 and described 50 measures that primarily assessed sensory and motor abilities
Alfred Binet developed a diagnostic test in 1905 to
identify mental retardation in school aged children
Terman
bility to carry on abstract thinking
Binet
a collection of faculties including judgment, practical sense, initiative, ability to adapt to the environment
Wechsler
The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his [or her] environment
Sternberg
mental activity involved in purposive adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of real- world environments relevant to one's life
Psychometric Intelligence
-Despite the variety of concepts of intelligence, the most influential approach to understanding intelligence is based on psychometric testing
-Intelligence is first and foremost your ability to do well on an intelligence test
Types of Intelligence Theories
Developmental
Factor Analytic
Information-Processing
Piaget's Developmental Theory
-Intelligence is a product of complex interactions of biology and environment : result in a reorganization of biological and psychological structures allowing for more flexible interactions in our environment
-Development in stages associated in changes in schema complexity
-Schemas are cognitive frameworks for how we interpret the environment
Assimilation
fitting information into existing schemas
Accommodation
existing schemas are modified to consider a new information and experiences
Intelligence is the development of
rational processes that allow for flexibly using both assimilation and accommodation
Factor Analytic Theories
Three ways to think about Intelligence : General Unitary Function (g), Several Independent Abilities, Hierarchical structure
-Development of these models tied to the development of Factor Analysis : Theories reflect assumptions made using statistical methods methods
Spearman's Two-Factor Theory
g factor (general intelligence): g involves mental activities such as deductive reasoning, comprehension, and hypothesis testing
specific factors: Behaviors influenced by these complex mental activities
Thurston's Multidimensional Theory of Intelligence
Did not believe in g - used factor analysis to state that there are several primary mental abilities, including: Verbal ability, Perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, rote memory, deductive reasoning, spatial,
-Later research showed modest correlations between these abilities
Cattell and Horn's Model
Two types of intelligence - Crystallized and Fluid
Fluid Intelligence
-Nonverbal, mental efficiency, adaptive and new learning capabilities, related to mental operations and processes
-More dependent on cortical and lower cortical regions
-Increases until adolescence and then gradually decreases throughout life
Crystallized Intelligence
Acquired skills and knowledge, well- established cognitive functions
-Influenced by formal and informal learning
-Increases through most of the life-span
• Contingent upon amount of fluid intelligence a person has
Campione's Model of Information Processing Theory
Focus on ways individuals mentally represent and process information.
-Includes Architectural Factors
-executive processes
Architectural Factors
Bio-genetically based properties necessary for information processes linked to perceptual skills.
-capacity, durability, efficiency
Executive Processes
Environmentally learned components that guide problem solving
-knowledge based
-schemas
-control processes
-metacognitions
Componential/Analytic
Information-processing components
-metacomponents
-performance
-knowledge acquisition
Issues with projective measures
situational influences, who's projecting onto whom (countertransference), validity
Experiential/Creative
Involves the individual's knowledge of both internal and external environments
-Involves how one copes with tasks/situations in these environments, which are dependent upon experience
-New situations are novel and require novel strategies
-With more experience those strategies become automatic
Contextual
How an individual adapts to, selects, and shapes his/her environment
-when a strategy fails = adapt new environment, shape environment
Comparing Theories of Intelligence
Points of agreement:
-knowledge based thinking
-apprehension
-adaptive purposeful striving
-fluid-analyric striving
-mental playfulness
-idiosyncratic learning
Key Differences?
...
Issues with Theories of Intelligence
-Nature versus Nurture
-Stability versus Instability
-The role of culture
Nature vs. Nurture
-Intelligence is most likely the result of an interaction between genetic endowment and environmental influences
-Historically there was a strong adherence to genetic pre-determinism
Support for Nature
-Heritability Index is approximately .50
-Twins studies support genetic component in intelligence based on degree of similarity
-Heritability indices actually increase with age, but does this mean that genes have more influence later in life?
Support for Nurture
-Perinatal factors resulting low birth weights tend to be associated with lower IQ
-Malnutrition during first 40 weeks associated with lower intellectual functioning
-SES correlates about r = .33, strongest effects seen with persistent poverty
-Significant correlations between IQ and years of school completed, truancy.
-Flynn Effect - increase of about 3 IQ points per decade from 1940 to 1990
Stability of Intelligence
-Difficult to predict intelligence later in life from infant measures
-Some support for intelligence scores becoming more stable when children reach school age
-May experience some decline late in life due to neurological deterioration.
The Role of Culture
-At times, items on intelligence tests may reflect the cultural modes of thinking and values of the culture in which the test was developed
-Someone not familiar with this culture may respond appropriately for their culture, but that responding may be reflected as a lower score on the test.
IQ is the best predictor of success in a wide variety of human endeavors.
Not as effective for predicting nonacademic intellectual activity
Intelligence tests provide a profile of cognitive strengths and weaknesses
But can be used to classify children into stereotyped and limiting categories
Educational Assessment Factors
-Age of test-taker
-Purpose of assessment
-Choice of response format
-High vs. low stakes
-Impact on 'teaching'
Tools of Preschool Assessment
Screening instruments used to identify children who are 'at risk'
-documented difficulties in one or more psychological, social, or academic areas
-format is primarily observer-based
Checklist
questionnaire provides a list of behaviors, thoughts, events, etc. each is marked if it is present
Rating Scale
Evaluator fills out a form with a list of characteristics, provides scores indicating relative standing
Psychological tests
-Before age 2 assessment is based on the presence of developmental milestones
-Tests must be specifically designed for the age-range being assessed : colorful, engaging materials, easy to administer , clear start, allow for behavior observation
Other Preschool Measures
Temperament
Family environment
Parenting/care giving
Childhood sexual abuse
Personality measures
Performance, Portfolio, Authentic Assessment
-Performance Assessment is a general term for tasks that are more complex than traditional survey items
-Portfolio assessment involves the review of a collection of work samples
-Authentic Assessment - emphasis on learning that can be transferred to real world setting
Diagnostic Tests
-Evaluative tests are used to make judgment
-Diagnostic tests are used to assess level of functioning for remedial purposes
-reading, math, other tests
Psychoeducational Test Batteries
-Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
-Differential Ability Scales
-Woodcock-Johnson III
-Metropolitan Readiness Test
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
intelligence test that assesses two basic types of information-processing skills
-sequential skills
-simultaneous skills
Sequential skills
following a set of tules, basic mathematical operations, memorizing lists of spelling words, rules of grammar
Simultaneous skills
-Recognizing letters/numbers
-Interpreting meaning of pictures
-Comprehension of scientific/ mathematical principles
Achievement tests are designed to measure what students have learned
Curriculum-Based Assessment/measurement
Achievement tests
designed to measure what students have learned
Aptitude tests (prognostic tests)
focus more on the capacity to learn
-often claim to measure things that cannot be taught or coached
Aptitude tests focus more on the capacity to learn, often claim to measure things that cannot be taught or coached
sometimes called prognostic tests
K-ABC
Intelligence test that assesses two basic
types of information-processing skills
Sequential Skills: Following a set of rules,
basic mathematical operations, memorizing
lists of spelling words, rules of grammar
Simultaneous Skills: Recognizing letters
and numbers, interpreting the overall
meaning of pictures, comprehension of
scientific and mathematical principles
Differential Ability Scales
Based on British Ability Scales, but noremd on US students age 2-18
-Assumes a developmental, hierarchical model of intelligence
--Do not use term intelligence
--Assume certain abilities only present at certain ages
-Factor structure of the measure changes with the age of test taker
Woodcock-Johnson-III
-Two batteries (Achievement and Aptitude) based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities
-Regular and extended batteries are available when more diagnostic information is needed
-Age-based norms available for ages 24 months to 19 years
Metropolitan Readiness Test (MRT)
level 1: auditorial memory, rhyming, visual matching

level 2: beginning consonants, sound-letter correspondence
Standardized Tests for College
General tests evaluate functioning in general learning environments (MRT, SAT, ACT)

Specific tests can be used to evaluate specific content areas (LSAT, MCAT, AP exams)
The SAT
First developed to help universities evaluate potential students
-1901: Scholastic Achievement Test
-1941: Scholastic Aptitude Test
-1990: Scholastic Assessment Test
The ACT
-Developed by psychologists at the University of Iowa (now a non-profit
-Goal was to develop an alternative to the SAT that reflects high school learning
-Often considered superior to the SAT due to an emphasis on knowledge-based question
-Becoming more popular due to criticisms of the SAT (although same issues may apply)
High stake tests
tests where important decisions are made based on test results
-ACT, SAT, GRE
SAT Bias Issues
-Gender gap in math
-ESL students under perform
-Parental education and income effects
-Racial/ethnic minority group differences
Potential Misuses of the
SAT and ACT
-Used to make decisions for college admissions
-Make decisions about scholarships
-Make decisions about eligibility for NCAA programs

Tests have biases against low income and minorities, these groups have less access to college
The GRE
-Similar to the SAT (same publisher)
but designed to measure preparation for education
-Verbal, Quantitative, and Analytical Writing sections in current version
-8 areas
The GRE and Graduate School: A Closer Look
-GRE Scores are required by 93% of Ph.D. programs in Psychology (81% Masters)
-Statistical Artifacts may impact estimates of Graduate school success
-small sample sizes
-restriction of range effects
-criterion unreliability
Other Graduate/Professional School Exams
GMAT
MCAT
LSAT
TOEFL
Issues with Educational Testing
-high-stakes testing
-advance placement
-impact of multiple choice
High-Stakes Testing
-A test is 'High-Stakes' when important decisions are made based on test results
-Students in poor school districts tend to struggle more on these tests
-Leads to increased grade retention and dropping out
-teaching to the test effects
-drives out good teachers
Advanced Placement
In 2002 over one million high school students participated in AP courses - 90% went on to take the AP exam
-College Board now offers 35 exams
-College Professors report that an increasing percentage of students are not prepared to function in a college environment
Multiple-Choice Format?
-cultural assumptions and bias in design of MC questions
-test performance may not translate into real-world knowledge
-complex processes cannot be evaluated
-students do not learn to cope with complex problems -- ones that may have multiple correct answers/ strategies
What's the Alternative?
-U.S. is the only economically advanced country to use this method to evaluate elementary and secondary learning
Testing as a Teaching Tool
Using regular small tests as part of the teaching process can improve retention of information for big exams
-not frequently used at higher levels of education
--cost issues
--students don't like it
Teaching by Testing
More challenging questions promote higher levels of retention, but there must be feedback on incorrect answers
-Works best when spaced out sequentially
-Repeated testing also improves retention
Objectives of educational testing depend on age range of students
Behavioral with young children, achievement in high school, accreditation in profession schools
Testing can either
impair or improve learning in classroom
Physical Tests
-Typically criterion referenced
-performance enhancing vs. "recreational"
Measuring Workplace Performance
-maximizing output is often the goal
-forced distribution techniques
-number of absences
-critical incidents technique
Ability and Aptitude
-GATB: general aptitude test battery
-Cognitive (General Learning Ability,
Verbal and Numerical Aptitude
-Perceptual (Spatial Aptitude, Form and Clerical Perception)
-Psychomotor (Motor coordination, Finger and Manual Dexterity
Ability and Job Performance
Correlation between job performance and general mental ability?
-mean validity coef. r=.51
-adolescent GMA predicts adult occupational attainment and income
-adding personality measures: incremental validity of r=.15
GATB
cognitive, perceptual, psychomotor
ASVAB
aptitude test used by military
Strong interest inventory
purpose is to identify patterns of interest that are associated with people who work in particular occupations
5 main types: occupational, personal, general occupational themes, basic interest, administrative
Survey Methods in Business
-opinion polls
-diary panel
-website surveys
Consumer Psychology
the branch of social psychology dealing with why people buy products
Measurement - The Strong
Interest Inventory
Purpose: identify patterns of interest that are associated with people who work in particular occupations (Based on PE-Fit)
-empirically derived
Five Main Types of Information
-general occupational themes
-basic interest scales
-occupational scales
-personal style scales
-administrative indexes
Occupational Scales
-Based on data collected from incumbents
-Provide information about how an individual's responses compare with those of people actually in and satisfied with a particular occupation
Occupational Scale Design
-Heterogeneous Scales
-Developed using Contrasted Groups Design comparing responses of incumbents from each occupation with a General Reference Sample
-Scores converted to t-scores
-3 to 6 month test-retest range from lower .80s to high .90s
-Good Concurrent and Predictive Validity
Personal Style Scales
designed to suggest particular environments in which individuals like to learn and to work and types of activities people find satisfying

*bipolar scales: work style, learning environment, leadership style, risk taking/adventure scale
General Occupational Themes
RIASEC
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
Holland Type (GOT) - Realistic
Interest areas such as mechanical, construction, and repair activities; nature and the outdoors
Holland Type (GOT) - Investigative
Gatheringinformation, uncovering new facts or theories, and analyzing and interpreting data
Holland Type (GOT) - Artistic
Valueaestheticqualities and have a great need for self-expression
Holland Type (GOT) - Social
Enjoy working in groups, sharing responsibilities, and being the center of attention
Holland Type (GOT) - Enterprising
Enjoyverballyselling, persuading, and leading
Holland Type (GOT) - Conventional
Like activities that require attention to organization, data systems, detail and accuracy
Basic Interest Scales
-30 scales
-subdivisions of GOTs - more specific
-homogeneous content
-3-6 month test-retest reliability ranged from .80 to .94
-good construct and concurrent validity
Diagnostic tests
axis 1: disorders of infancy and adolescence, drug abuse related
axis 2: intellectual disability/personality disorders
axis 3: physical conditions that affect mental functioning
axis 4: presences of life stressors that facilitate maladaptive or self destructive behavior
DSM 4 vs DSM 5
new diagnoses added, some diagnoses removed, axis system has become more holistic and less structured, but still similar
Applications: health psych
understanding psychological variables in onset, course, treatment, and prevention of disease
-kinds of tests: interviews, surveys, paper-pencil
-biggest issue: validity and reliability
Context-specific validity
often, we are trying to measure behaviors that are socially undesirable and/or associated with low levels of insight
Clinical focus
the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of more severe abnormal behavior
counseling focus
everyday problems in living
Why do we need psychological reports?
legal necessity: managed care settings, documenting
professional clinical diagnosis: treatment planning, possible medications, other medical ...
Case history
hospital records, school records, employments records, legal records
What do you get from an interview?
objective infor: demographic data, past medical history, etc.
subjective information: appearance, mood, nonverbal/verbal
Structured interviews
answers prepared in advance
-advantages: teachable, trainable reliable...
unstructured interviews
few/no questions
advantages: leaves interviewers the freedom to delve into subject areas as their judgement indicates
Clinical interview
gathering info by means of discussion
observation is key: not only what the patient says, but how things are said
-many diff types: cognitive, collaborative
Mental status examination
interview assessment of: level of cognitive ability (orientation to person, place, time), appearance, emotional state/mood, speech and thought patterns
It's easier to get information from tests than by clinical interview
...
The information from tests is more scientifically reliable than the information from a clinical interview
...
Psychological tests are better at
detecting lies than clinical interviews
Advantages of standford- binet
good norming, standardization, and psychometric properties throughout
-can be used for preschool children through adulthood, higher ceilings and lower floors
disadvantage of standford- binet
battery of items and subsets changes throughout the age ranges, ranges in scores are not consistent throughout age ranges, 4 factors do not hold up throughout the age ranges
-some subjectivity involved in scoring verbal subsets
The rorschach rest
came only with 10 cards- no test manual, administration instructions, scoring criteria, interpretation instructions
TAT
test-taker usually identifies with the prognostic of the story and the determinants of behavior
-environmental demands placed on the prognostic are related to the concerns, hopes, fears, and desires of the test-taker
Other sets by this creator