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AP Environmental Science Exam Review 2020

Terms in this set (145)

First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another.
El Niño (ENSO)
prevailing winds in the Pacific weaken and change direction every few years which results in above average warming of eastern Pacific waters, which changes distribution of plant nutrients and alters earth's weather for 2-3 years
Reason for seasons on Earth
Tilt of the axis ~23.5°
Second Law of Thermodynamics
When energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat).
Nuclear Fission
nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons.
Leaching
removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil.
Soil Conservation Methods
conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizers.
Soil Salinization
in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind. (ex. Fertile crescent, southwestern US)
Hydrologic Cycle Components
evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration.
Watershed
all of the land that drains into a body of water
Aquifer
any water-bearing layer in the ground.
Salt Water Intrusion
near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer.
La Nina
"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America.
Nitrogen Fixation
because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants, it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria.
Ammonification
decomposers covert organic waste into ammonia.
Nitrification
ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO -).
Assimilation
inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins.
Denitrification
bacteria convert ammonia back into N.
Phosphorus
does not exist as a gas; released by weathering of phosphate rocks, it is a major limiting factor for plant growth. Phosphorus cycle is slow, and not atmospheric.
Soil Profile
Photosynthesis
plants convert CO2 (atmospheric C) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6).
Aerobic Respiration
oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2.
Biotic
living components of an ecosystem.
Abiotic
nonliving components of an ecosystem
Producer/Autotroph
organisms that make their own food—photosynthetic life.
Trophic Levels
producers → primary consumer → secondary consumer → tertiary consumer.
Energy Flow through Food Webs
10% of the usable energy is transferred to the next trophic level. Reason: usable energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey.
Primary succession
development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life (ex. lava).
Secondary succession
life progresses where soil remains (ex. clear-cut forest, old farm).
Mutualism
symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit (e.g. clownfish and anemone)
Commensalism
symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits & the other is unaffected (e.g. epiphytic plants, such as many orchids, that grow on trees)
Parasitism
relationship in which one organism (the parasite) obtains nutrients at the expense of the host (e.g. mosquitoes and humans)
Carrying Capacity
the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area.
r-strategist
reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early, bear many small, unprotected offspring (ex. insects, mice).
K-strategist
reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, cared for offspring (ex. humans, elephants).
Natural Selection
organisms that possess favorable adaptations (through mutations) pass them onto the next generation.
Thomas Malthus
The human population is kept in check by war, famine & disease. Did not foresee technological advancements like medicine.
Doubling Time
(rule of 70) doubling time equals 70 divided by average growth rate. (ex. a population growing at 5% annually doubles in 70 ÷ 5 = 14 years)
Replacement Level Fertility
the number of children a couple must bear to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing).
World Population
slightly over 7.4 billion.
Demographic Transition Model
preindustrial, transitional, industrial, and postindustrial stages
Preindustrial stage
birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high.
Transitional stage
Aid from other countries and increase in industrialization lowers death rates (infant mortality). Birth rates high (from of the amount of people in the reproductive stage).
Industrial stage
decline in birth rate, population growth slows.
Postindustrial stage
low birth & death rates.
Age Structure Diagrams
broad base → rapid growth; narrow base → negative growth (NPG); uniform shape → zero growth (ZPG)
Most populous nations
1)China 2)India 3)US 4)Indonesia
Low Economic/Social Status of Women
Most important factor keeping population growth rates high.
Methods to Decrease Birth Rates
Family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties.
Composition of Water on Earth
97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater. 0.023% readily available freshwater for use.
Aquaculture
farming aquatic species, commonly salmon, shrimp, tilapia, oysters.
Eutrophication
rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus.
Keystone Species
species whose role in an ecosystem is important for the ecosystem's stability (manatee, alligator, sea otter, etc). Impact outweighs relative abundance
Indicator Species
species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged (amphibians).
Pesticide Cons
genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biological magnification.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
new organisms created by altering the genetic material (DNA) of existing organisms; usually in an attempt to remove undesirable or create desirable characteristics in the new organism.
Electricity Generation
steam, from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear energy, or falling water is used to turn a turbine and generate a generator.
Coal Formation
prehistoric plants buried undecomposed in oxygen-depleted water of swamps/bogs converted by heat and pressure.
Nuclear Reactor
consists of a core, control rods, moderator, steam generator, turbine, containment building.
Alternate Energy Sources
wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
Troposphere
first layer of atmosphere 0-10 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains weather, greenhouse gases (bad ozone)
Stratosphere
second layer of atmosphere 10-30 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains protective ozone layer (good ozone)
Temperature Inversion
a warm layer of air above a cooler layer traps pollutants close to the Earth's surface.
Divergent plate boundaries
tectonic plates spreading apart, new crust being formed (Mid Ocean Ridge)
Convergent plate boundaries
tectonic plates with the oldest crustal material on Earth moving together, one moving under another. Mineral deposits and volcanoes are most abundant at convergent plate boundaries (Volcanic arc like Japan)
Transform Fault
tectonic plates sliding past one another (San Andreas Fault Line)
Most Endangered species
have a small range, require large territory, have long generations, have very specialized niche, or live on an island
Biome
large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals.
Tropical Rain Forests
characterized by the greatest diversity of species, believed to include many undiscovered species. Occur near the equator. Soils tend to be low in nutrients. Distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry).
Temperate Forests
occur in eastern North America, Japan, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe. Dominated by tall deciduous trees. Well-defined seasons include a distinct winter. Logged extensively, only scattered remnants of original temperate forests remain.
Boreal Forests or Taiga
represent the largest terrestrial biome. Dominated by needleleaf, coniferous trees. Found in the cold climates of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. Extensive logging may soon cause their disappearance.
Temperate Shrub Lands
occurs along the coast of Southern California and the Mediterranean region. Characterized by areas of Chaparral-miniature woodlands dominated by dense stands of shrubs.
Savannas
grassland with scattered individual trees. Cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America, and India. Warm or hot climates where the annual rainfall is 20-50 inches per year. The rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months of the year, followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur.
Temperate Grasslands
dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America.
Deserts
covers about one fifth of the Earth's surface and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm/year. Soils may have abundant nutrients, need only water to become productive, and have little or no organic matter. Common disturbances include occasional fires or cold weather, and sudden, infrequent, but intense rains that cause flooding.
Tundra
treeless plains that are the coldest of all the biomes. Occur in the arctic and Antarctica. Dominated by lichens, mosses, sedges, and dwarfed shrubs Characterized by extremely cold climate, permanently frozen ground (permafrost) low biotic diversity, simple vegetation structure, limitation of drainage, short season of growth and reproduction.
Wetlands
areas of standing water that support aquatic plants including marshes, swamps, and bogs. Reduce flooding. Species diversity is very high.
Fresh Water
defined as having a low salt concentration (less than 1%). Plants and animals are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration (i.e., ocean). There are different types of regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and estuaries.
Oceans
the largest of all the ecosystems. Regions are separated into separate zones: intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic.
Safe Drinking Water Act
set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health.
Clean Water Act
Aim: to make all US waterways safe for fishing and swimming. set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways. Require the repairment of damaged wetlands.
Clean Air Act
NAAQS for 6 criteria pollutants. Set emission standards for mobile and stationary sources, and limits release of air pollutants. Multiple amendments, most influential modern env. law
Montreal Protocol
global agreement to phase out of ozone depleting substances.
Endangered Species Act
identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
regulates the use and effectiveness of pesticides
Herbicide
a toxic chemical that kills plants
Insecticide
a toxic chemical that kills insects
Rodenticide
a toxic chemical that kills rodents
Fungicide
a toxic chemical that kills fungi
Niche
organism's role in the ecosystem of which it lives
Invasive Species
introduced into an ecosystem and out-compete native species
NO2, SO2, Pb, PM (2.5 and 10), O3, CO
6 criteria air pollutants
Top 4 indoor air pollutants in DEVELOPED countries
Tobacco smoke, Formaldehyde, Radon Gas, Fine and Ultrafine Particulate Matter
saltwater intrusion
an infiltration of salt water in an area where groundwater pressure has been reduced from extensive drilling of wells
rock cycle
A series of processes on the surface and inside Earth that slowly changes rocks from one kind to another
Erosion
Processes by which rock, sand, and soil are broken down and carried away (i.e. weathering, glaciation)
soil conservation
a method to maintain the fertility of the soil by protecting the soil from erosion and nutrient loss
edge effect
different environmental conditions that occur along the boundaries of an ecosystem. May observe higher biodiversity
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
ecosystem services
the processes by which life-supporting resources such as clean water, timber, fisheries, and agricultural crops are produced
ecological succession
gradual change in living communities that follows a disturbance. Primary (no soil, much longer) or Secondary
nitrogen cycle
The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere
nitrogen fixation
process of converting nitrogen gas (N2) into nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb and use (Ammonia/Ammonium: NH3/NH4+)
demographic transition
change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates across four stages
age structure diagram
graph of the numbers of males and females within different age groups of a population. Helps project population change over time
One Child Policy
A program established by the Chinese government in 1979 to slow population growth.
malnourished
Having a diet that lacks the correct balance of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.
undernourished
having insufficient food or other substances for good health and condition
Green Revolution
a large increase in crop production in developing countries achieved by the use of fertilizers, machines, pesticides, and high-yield crop varieties.
genetic engineering
Process of making changes in the DNA code of living organisms
Irrigation methods
Aquifer/well withdrawal, ditches and canals, drip, spray, flooding
IPM
Pest management using a variety of techniques, agricultural, biological and use of minimal amount of pesticides when necessary to limit pest damage to economically tolerable level
old growth/primary forest
an uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for 200 years or more
tree plantation (aka tree farm or commercial forest)
a large area typically planted with a single rapidly growing tree species
crown fire
Extremely hot fire that leaps from treetop to treetop - occurs in forests with no surface fires for several decades (an excessive amount of deadwood has built up) - this kills most vegetation, wildlife, buildings and contributes to soil erosion
surface fires
fires that typically burn only the forest's underbrush and do little damage to mature trees. May actually serve to protect the forest from more harmful fires by removing underbrush and dead materials that would burn quickly and at high temperatures.
Overgrazing
Destruction of vegetation caused by too many animals consuming the plants in a particular area so they cannot recover
Desertification
Degradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting.
suburban sprawl
low-population-density developments that are built outside of a city. Think strip malls, parking lots, spread out houses, lots of roads/highways
urban heat island
Is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas. Tall buildings block air flow, machines release heat, abundant dark surfaces
National Parks System
established by the United States to preserve historic sites & habitats of many plants & animals
wildlife refuge
an area designated for the protection of wild animals, within which hunting and fishing are either prohibited or strictly regulated
wilderness
An area where there are few people living; an area still in its natural state
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA)
this law requires mining companies to restore most surface-mined land by grading and replanting it
TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act)
act that regulates existing chemicals that pose an unreasonable health risk. Its objective is to allow EPA to regulate new commercial chemicals
RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act)
developed a comprehensive program to ensure that hazardous waste is managed safely from the moment it is generated to its final disposal (cradle-to-grave)
purse-seine fishing
an effective fishing method for species that school near the surface; a large net is encircled around the targeted catch, after which the bottom of the net is drawn tight, thus confining the catch in the net.
longline fishing
a commercial fishing technique that uses a long line with baited hooks attached at intervals.
bottom trawling
a fishing technique in which the ocean floor is scraped by heavy nets that smash everything in their path to collect bottom dwellers
hydroponics
a technique of growing plants (without soil) in water containing dissolved nutrients
Tragedy of the Commons
situation in which people acting individually and in their own interest use up commonly available (public) but limited resources, creating disaster for the entire community
formation of coal
Peat is the raw material from which coal is formed. Over time and under increasing heat and pressure, various types of coal are formed
anthracite
coal of a hard variety that contains relatively pure carbon and burns with little flame and smoke.
Bituminous
the second-purest form of coal.
Lignite
the least pure coal, soft, brownish
CAFE Standards (Corporate Average Fuel Economy)
these standards set mile per gallon standards for a fleet of cars; increased fuel economy = lower energy usage
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
A car that combines the engine of a conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle, allowing it to achieve higher fuel economy than a conventional car
Biomass
total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level, can be used as alternative/renewable fuel source
tidal energy
The energy captured by transforming the wave motion of water into electrical energy using a turbine
photochemical smog
A brownish haze that is a mixture of ozone and other chemicals, formed when Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds react with each other in the presence of sunlight
industrial smog
Type of air pollution consisting mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide, suspended droplets of sulfuric acid formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and suspended solid particles, mostly due to burning coal
noise pollution
Any unwanted, disturbing, or harmful sound that impairs or interferes with hearing, causes stress, hampers concentration and work efficiency, or causes accidents.
light pollution
brightening of the night sky caused by street lights and other man-made sources, which has a disruptive effect on natural cycles and inhibits the observation of stars and planets.
Water pollution
oil spills, excess fertilizer, excess sediment, plastic particles, thermal, dumping of chemicals etc.
CFCs and Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Both greenhouse gas and contribute to ozone depletion when they break down in the stratosphere
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