AP US Government and Politics Vocabulary

Terms in this set (423)

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCING GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA

a means of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public's preferences.

Elite and class theory

argues that society is divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite rules on the basis of its wealth.

institutions that make public policy for a society.

Gross domestic product

the total value of all goods and services produced annually by the United States.

argues that too many strong influential groups cripple the government's ability to make coherent policy by dividing government and its authority.

Linkage institutions

institutions such as parties, elections, interest groups, and the media, which provide a linkage between the preferences of citizens and the government's policy agenda.

weighing the desires of the majority in choosing among policy alternatives.

Minority rights

protecting the rights and freedoms of the minority in choosing among policy alternatives.

Pluralist theory

argues that there are many centers of influence in which groups compete with one another for control over public policy through bargaining and compromise.

the list of subjects or problems to which people inside and outside government are paying serious attention at any given time.

Policy gridlock

where each interest uses its influence to thwart policies it opposes so that no coalition forms a majority to establish policy.

the effects a policy has on people and problems.

Policymaking institutions

institutions such as Congress, the presidency, and the courts established by the Constitution to make policy.

Policymaking system

institutions of government designed to respond to each other and to the priorities of the people by governmental action.

Political culture

an overall set of values widely shared within a society.

Political issue

this arises when people disagree about a problem or about public policy choices made to combat a problem.

Political participation

the ways in which people get involved in politics.

determines whom we select as our government leaders and what policies they pursue; in other words, who gets what, when, and how.

things that everyone can share.

a choice that government makes in response to some issue on its agenda.

the relationship between the leaders and the followers.

Single-issue groups

groups so concerned with one matter that their members cast their votes on the basis of that issue only.

CHAPTER TWO THE CONSTITUTION

Anti-Federalists

opposed the new Constitution, feared the new Constitution would erode fundamental liberties, and argued that the new Constitution was a class-based document serving the economic elite.

Articles of Confederation

the document that outlined the voluntary agreement between states and was adopted as the first plan for a permanent union of the United States.

the first ten Amendments to the Constitution passed after ratification specifically protecting individual liberties to fulfill promises made by the Federalists to the Anti-Federalists in return for their support.

Checks and balances

each branch requires the consent of the others for many of its decisions.

Connecticut Compromise

the plan adopted at the Constitutional Convention to provide for two chambers in Congress, one representing states equally and the other representing states on the basis of their share of the population.

Consent of the governed

people must agree on who their rulers will be.

a nation's basic law creating institutions, dividing power, and providing guarantees to citizens.

Declaration of Independence

the document used by the signers to announce and justify the Revolutionary War and which was specifically designed to enlist the aid of foreign nations in the revolt.

Equal Rights Amendment

was first proposed in 1923, passed by Congress in 1972, but was not ratified by three-fourths of the states; this amendment mandated equality of rights under the law regardless of gender.

groups of people, currently known as political parties or interest groups, who arise as a result of unequal distribution of wealth to seize the reins of government in their own interest.

Federalist Papers

articles written to convince others to support the new constitution.

argued for ratification of the Constitution by writing the Federalist Papers; included Madison, Hamilton, and Jay.

Judicial review

the courts have the power to decide whether the actions of the legislative and executive branches of state and national governments are in accordance with the Constitution.

Limited government

clear restrictions on what rulers could do; this safeguards natural rights.

Marbury v. Madison

Judicial review was established in this 1803 Supreme Court case.

these are rights to which people are entitled by natural law, including life, liberty, and property.

New Jersey Plan

a plan by some of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention to provide each state with equal representation in Congress.

a system based on the consent of the governed where power is exercised by representatives of the public.

Separation of powers

each branch of government would be independent of the others.

Shays' Rebellion

a series of armed attacks on courthouses to prevent judges from foreclosing on farms.

U.S. Constitution

the document where the foundations of U.S. government are written, providing for national institutions that each have separate but not absolute powers.

a plan by some of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention to provide each state with a share of congressional seats based on its share of the population.

Writ of habeas corpus

this enables people who are detained by authorities to secure an immediate inquiry and reasons why they have been detained.

CHAPTER THREE FEDERALISM

broad program grants given more or less automatically to states and communities, which exercise discretion in how the money is spent.

Categorical grants

grants that can be used only for specific purposes or categories of state and local spending.

Cooperative federalism

where state and the national government responsibilities are mingled and blurred like a marble cake; powers and policies are shared.

transferring responsibility for policies from the federal government to state and local governments.

Dual federalism

where states and the national government each remain supreme within their own spheres of power, much like a layer cake.

the statement in the Constitution which says that Congress has the power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its duties.

Enumerated powers

powers of Congress found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution.

the Constitution requires each state to return a person charged with a crime in another state to that state for trial or imprisonment.

a system of shared power between two or more levels of government.

Fiscal federalism

the pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system.

a type of categorical grant where states and local governments do not apply for a grant but are given funds on the basis of a formula.

Full faith and credit

Article IV of the Constitution requires states to provide reciprocity toward other states' public acts, records, and civil judicial proceedings.

Gibbons v. Ogden

the 1824 Supreme Court case which further expanded Congress' power to regulate interstate and international commerce by defining commerce very broadly to incorporate every form of commercial activity.

powers beyond Congress' enumerated powers which ensure that it can carry out its duties.

Intergovernmental relations

the term used to describe the entire set of interactions among national, state, and local governments.

McCulloch v. Maryland

the 1819 Supreme Court case, which established the supremacy of the national government over the states, included both enumerated and implied powers of Congress.

Privileges and immunities

the Constitution prohibits states from discriminating against citizens of other states.

categorical grants awarded on the basis of competitive applications.

Supremacy clause

Article VI of the Constitution states that the supreme law of the land is the Constitution, the laws of the national government, and treaties.

Tenth Amendment

specifies that powers not delegated to the national government are reserved for the state government or the people.

Unitary government

a system where all power resides in the central government.

CHAPTER FOUR CIVIL LIBERTIES AND PUBLIC POLICY

the first ten amendments to the Constitution.

Civil Liberties

legal and constitutional protections against government infringement of political liberties and criminal rights.

Commercial Speech

communication in the form of advertising.

Cruel and unusual punishment

Eighth Amendment prohibits such punishment.

Eighth Amendment

forbids cruel and unusual punishment, although it does not define this phrase.

Establishment clause

First Amendment prohibits government from establishing a religion; is the basis for separation of church and state.

Exclusionary rule

prohibits government from including illegally obtained evidence in a trial.

Fifth Amendment

prohibits government from forcing individuals to testify against themselves.

First Amendment

establishes freedom of religion, press, speech, and assembly.

Fourteenth Amendment

prohibits states from denying equal protection of the laws.

Free exercise clause

government is prohibited in the First Amendment from interfering in the practice of religion.

Incorporation Doctrine

legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.

publication of false or malicious statements that damage someone's reputation.

Plea bargaining

an actual bargain struck between the defendant's lawyer and the prosecutor to the effect that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser crime (or fewer crimes) in exchange for the state's promise not to prosecute the defendant for a more serious (or additional) crime.

Prior restraint

government instrument to prevent material from being published.

police must have a good reason to arrest someone.

Right to privacy

a contrived right from unstated liberties in the Bill of Rights.

written authorization from a court specifying the area to be searched and what the police are searching for.

Self-incrimination

testifying against oneself.

Sixth Amendment

designed to protect individuals accused of crimes; includes the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to a speedy and public trial.

Symbolic Speech

political actions instead of words.

Unreasonable searches and seizures

obtaining evidence without a good reason.

CHAPTER FIVE CIVIL RIGHTS AND PUBLIC POLICY

Affirmative action

a policy designed to give special consideration to those previously discriminated against.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

strengthened protections of individuals with disabilities by requiring employers and public facilities to make "reasonable accommodations" and prohibiting employment discrimination against people with disabilities.

extending citizenship rights to participate to those previously denied them.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

forbids discrimination in public accommodations and facilities.

Comparable worth

equal pay for equal worth.

Equal protection of the laws

provided by the Fourteenth Amendment mandating that all people be protected by the law.

Equal Rights Amendment

proposal that equality of rights under the law not be denied on the account of sex.

Fifteenth Amendment

provides the right to vote for Blacks.

Fourteenth Amendment

prohibits states from denying equal protection of the laws.

Nineteenth Amendment

provides women with the right to vote.

taxes levied on the right to vote designed to hurt poor Blacks.

the legal right to vote.

Thirteenth Amendment

abolished slavery and involuntary servitude.

Twenty-fourth Amendment

prohibited poll taxes in federal elections.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

a policy designed to reduce the barriers to voting for those suffering discrimination.

practice where only Whites could vote in primaries.

CHAPTER SIX PUBLIC OPINION AND POLITICAL ACTION

a count of the American population conducted every ten years.

Civil disobedience

a form of unconventional participation designed to consciously break a law thought to be unjust.

the science of human populations.

a poll taken at randomly selected polling places after the citizens have placed their votes.

a consistent attitudinal pattern where women are more likely than men to express liberal attitudes and to support Democratic candidates.

the mixture of cultures, ideas, and peoples in the United States.

Minority majority

a reference to the impending status of White, Anglo-Saxon Americans, currently holding majority status.

Political culture

an overall set of values widely shared within a society.

Political ideology

a coherent set of values and beliefs about public policy.

Political participation

the activities used by citizens to influence political outcomes.

Political socialization

the process by which citizens acquire their knowledge, feelings, and evaluations of the political world.

a form of political participation designed to change policy through unconventional tactics.

the distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and issues.

Random digit dialing

phone numbers are dialed at random around the country.

Random sampling

a polling technique which is based on the principle that everyone has an equal probability of being selected as part of the sample.

Reapportionment

the reallocation of 435 seats in the House of Representatives based on changes in residency and population found in the census.

a small proportion of the population chosen as representative of the whole population.

the level of confidence involved in a sample result—the level is dependent on the size of the sample.

CHAPTER SEVEN THE MASS MEDIA AND THE POLITICAL AGENDA

specific locations where news frequently occurs.

Broadcast media

one of two kinds of media, includes television and radio.

media conglomerates that control a large percentage of daily newspaper circulation and some television and radio stations as well.

High-tech politics

politics where technology has shaped political behavior and the political agenda.

Investigative journalism

the use of detective-like reporting methods to unearth scandals.

media which reaches and influences both elites and the masses.

an event staged primarily for the purpose of being covered.

strategy of some broadcast channels that appeal to a narrow, rather than a broad, audience.

the list of subjects or problems to which government officials and people outside of government closely associated with those officials are paying some serious attention at any given time.

Policy entrepreneurs

political activists who invest their political capital in an issue.

Press conferences

presidential meetings with the press.

one of two kinds of media, includes newspapers and magazines.

a portion of a speech aired on TV of fifteen seconds or less.

a shot of a person's face talking directly into the camera.

information leaked to the media to see what the political reaction will be.

CHAPTER EIGHT POLITICAL PARTIES

Blanket primaries

nomination contests where voters are presented with a list of the candidates from all the parties and allows them to pick candidates from all parties.

a set of individuals and groups supporting a political party.

Coalition governments

governments where smaller parties combine with larger parties to control half of the seats in the legislature.

Closed primaries

nomination contests where only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote.

Critical election

an election where each party's coalition of support begins to break up and a new coalition of forces is formed for each party.

Linkage institutions

institutions such as parties, elections, interest groups, and the media translate inputs from the public into outputs from policymakers.

National chairperson

the person responsible for taking care of the day-to-day activities and daily duties of the party.

National committee

a coalition of representatives from the states and territories charged with maintaining the party between elections.

National convention

the supreme power within each party, which meets every four years, writes the party platform, and nominates candidates for president and vice president.

New Deal coalition

the new coalition of forces (urban, unions, Catholics, Jews, the poor, southerners, African Americans, and intellectuals) in the Democratic party that was forged as a result of national economic crisis associated with the Great Depression.

nomination contests where voters can decide on election day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contest.

Party competition

the battle between the two dominant parties in the American system.

Party dealignment

when voters move away from both parties.

periods during which there has been a dominant majority party for long periods of time.

Party identification

the self-proclaimed preference for one or the other party.

what voters know or think they know about what each party stands for.

a particular kind of party organization that depends on both specific and material inducements for rewarding loyal party members.

Party realignment

process whereby the major political parties form new support coalitions that endure for a long period.

one of the key inducements used by machines whereby jobs are given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.

Political party

a team of men and women seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election.

Proportional representation

an electoral system where legislative seats are allocated on the basis of each party's percentage of the national vote.

Rational-choice theory

a theory that seeks to explain political processes and outcomes as consequences of purposive behavior, where political actors are assumed to have goals and who pursue those goals rationally.

Responsible party model

an ideal model of party organization recommending that parties provide distinct programs, encourage candidates to be committed to the party platform, intend to implement their programs, and accept responsibility for the performance of government.

minor parties which either promote narrow ideological issues or are splinter groups from the major parties.

Ticket-splitting

voting with one party for one office and another for other offices.

Winner-take-all system

an electoral system where whoever gets the most votes wins the election.

CHAPTER NINE NOMINATIONS AND CAMPAIGNS

Campaign strategy

the way candidates use scarce resources to achieve the nomination or win office.

a meeting to determine which candidate delegates from a state party will support.

the use of targeted mailings to prospective supporters, usually compiled from lists of those who have contributed to candidates and parties in the past.

Federal Election Campaign Act

1974 legislation designed to regulate campaign contributions and limit campaign expenditures.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

a bipartisan body charged with administering campaign finance laws.

states' decisions to move their presidential primaries and caucuses to earlier in the nomination season in order to capitalize on media attention.

money provided to qualifying presidential candidates from the

Presidential Election Campaign Fund, the amount of which is determined by the amount of contributions raised by the candidate.

McGovern-Fraser Commission

a committee in the Democratic party charged with recommending changes in party rules to promote more representation of women and minorities in the delegate selection process.

National party convention

a meeting of the delegates from each state to determine the party's nominee for president.

National primary

a proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries systems who would replace these electoral methods with a nationwide primary held early in the election year.

a party's official endorsement of a candidate for office.

the party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

a legal entity formed expressly for the purpose of contributing money to candidates and influencing electoral outcomes.

Presidential Election Campaign Fund

money from the $3 federal income tax check-off goes into this fund, which is then distributed to qualified candidates to subsidize their presidential campaigns.

Presidential primaries

a state-level election to determine which candidate the state's delegates will support.

Regional primaries

a proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries held in each geographic region.

Selective perception

the act of paying the most attention to things that one already agrees with or has a predisposition towards.

money raised by political parties for voter registration drives and the distribution of campaign material at the grass roots level, now banned at the national level.

delegates to the Democratic Party's national convention who obtain their seats on the basis of their positions within the party structure.

independent groups that seek to influence the political process but are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly advocate the election of a particular candidate.

CHAPTER TEN ELECTIONS AND VOTING BEHAVIOR

a belief in the obligation to vote.

Electoral college

the institution designated in the Constitution whereby a body of electors selects the president and vice president.

Initiative petition

direct democracy technique that allows proposed legislative items to be placed on a statewide ballot when enough signatures are obtained.

widely shared belief that a democratic government was elected fairly and freely.

Mandate theory of elections

the belief that the election winner has a mandate to implement policy promises.

Motor Voter Act

this legislation requires states to let people register to vote at the same time they apply for a driver's license.

occurs when people base their choices on how close a candidate's issues positions are to their own issue preferences.

Political efficacy

the belief that ordinary people can influence government.

direct democracy technique that allows citizens to approve or disapprove some legislative act, bond, issue, or constitutional amendment proposed by a state legislature.

Retrospective voting

voting theory that suggests that individuals who feel that they are better off as a result of certain policies are likely to support candidates who pledge to continue those policies, and those who feel worse off are inclined to support opposition candidates.

the legal right to vote.

Voter registration

a requirement that citizens register to vote before the election is held.

CHAPTER ELEVEN INTEREST GROUPS

a group composed of those in the potential group who are members of the interest group.

Amicus curiae briefs

"friend of the court" briefs filed by interest groups to inform the court of their position and to state how their welfare would be affected by a ruling.

Class action lawsuits

a technique used by interest groups which allows groups of people with similar complaints to combine their grievances into a single suit.

Collective good

something of value which cannot be withheld from individuals in the potential group.

helping sympathetic candidates get into office.

argues that because only a few groups have enough power to influence policy, power is concentrated into a few interlocking power centers.

Free-rider problem

a situation where individuals let others work to secure a collective good and then enjoy the benefit without contributing anything to the group effort.

Hyperpluralist theory

argues that too many groups are getting what they want at the expense of the unrepresented and that this behavior leads to incoherent public policy.

Interest groups

organizations where people with similar policy goals enter the political process to achieve those goals.

a communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his or her own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his or her decision.

Olson's law of large groups

suggests that the larger the group, the more difficult it will be to secure enough of the collective good to encourage participation.

Pluralist theory

argues that interest group activities provide additional representation and compete against each other to influence political outcomes.

Political action committees

a legal means for groups to participate in elections by contributing money.

Potential group

a group composed of all people who share some common interest.

Public interest lobbies

organizations that seek a collective good which does not only benefit their membership.

Right-to-work law

a state law that forbids the requirement of union membership as a condition of employment.

Selective benefits

these benefits are goods that a group can restrict to those who are members.

Single-issue groups

groups which have very narrow interests, shun compromise, and single-mindedly pursue goals.

exclusive relationships composed of interest groups leaders, government agency personnel, and members of congressional committees who perform mutually beneficial services for each other at the public's expense.

a rule established to prevent free-riders by requiring new employees to join the union where one has been granted bargaining rights.

CHAPTER TWELVE CONGRESS

Bicameral legislature

a legislature that is divided into two chambers.

a proposed law, drafted in precise, legal language.

helping constituents as individuals cut through bureaucratic red tape to receive their rightful benefits.

a grouping of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic.

Committee chairs

the most important influences on the congressional agenda; they schedule hearings, hire staff, appoint subcommittees, and manage committee bills.

Conference committee

a special committee formed when each chamber passes a bill in different forms, composed of members of each chamber who were appointed by each chamber's leaders to work out a compromise bill.

is unlimited debate, is unique to the Senate, and can only be ended by a vote for cloture by 60 members.

House Rules Committee

a committee unique to the House, which is appointed by the

Speaker of the House, reviews most bills coming from a House committee for a floor vote, and which gives each bill a rule.

people who already hold office.

Joint committees

special committees composed of members from each chamber.

Legislative oversight

the process of monitoring the bureaucracy and its administration of policy.

Majority leader

the Speaker's principal partisan ally who is responsible for soliciting support for the party's position on legislation.

Minority leader

is the minority party's counterpart to the majority party's leadership.

list of federal projects, grants, and contracts available to cities, businesses, colleges, and institutions.

Select committees

appointed for a specific purpose.

Seniority system

a system used until the 1970s where majority party members who had served on their committees the longest, regardless of party loyalty, mental state, or competence, were automatically appointed chair of the committee.

Speaker of the House

as mandated by the Constitution, is next in line after the vice president to succeed a president who is unable to fulfill his/her term and who presides over the House.

Standing committees

committees formed in each chamber to handle bills in different policy areas.

The majority or minority leader's principle tool for securing support for legislation and who lobby partisans for support.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN THE PRESIDENCY

the group of presidential advisors who head the executive departments.

Council of Economic Advisers (CEA)

members advise the president on economic policy and prepare the Annual Report of the CEA.

a sudden, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous event.

the political equivalent of an indictment for removing a discredited president.

Legislative veto

a clause which allows Congress to override the action of the executive.

National Security Council (NSC)

a committee that links the president's key foreign and military advisors.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

responsible for preparing the president's budget and assessing the budgetary implications of legislative proposals.

this occurs when Congress adjourns within 10 days after submitting a bill and the president takes no action to sign it or veto it.

Presidential coattails

where voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president's party because those candidates support the president.

Twenty-fifth Amendment

passed in 1967, permits the vice president to become acting president in the event that the president is temporarily disabled.

Twenty-second Amendment

passed in 1951, limits presidents to two terms.

sending the legislation back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it.

War Powers Resolution

passed in 1973, requires presidents to consult with Congress prior to using military force and mandates the withdrawal of forces after sixty days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension.

a political scandal involving President Nixon's abuse of his powers.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENT, AND THE BUDGET

THE POLITICS OF TAXING AND SPENDING

Appropriations bill

bill passed annually to fund an authorized program.

Authorization bill

an act of Congress that establishes a discretionary government program or an entitlement, or that continues or changes such programs.

a policy document that allocates burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures).

Budget resolution

a bill setting limits on expenditures based on revenue projections, agreed to by both houses of Congress in April each year.

Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974

an act designed to reform the budgeting process by making Congress less dependent on the president's budget; established a fixed budget calendar and a budget committee in each house.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

research agency of Congress, responsible to it for providing analyses of budget proposals, revenue forecasts, and related information.

Continuing resolutions

laws that allow agencies to spend at the previous year's level.

occurs when government spends more money than it receives in taxes in the fiscal year.

expenditures for which the total amount spent is not by congressional appropriation, but rather by rules of eligibility established by Congress.

money spent by the government in any one year.

all of the money borrowed by the government over the years that is still outstanding.

House Ways and Means Committee

responsible for originating all revenue bills.

the portion of money individuals are required to pay to the government from the money they earned.

the best predictor of this year's budget is last year's budget plus a little bit more.

in 1965, this program was added to Social Security to provide hospital and physician coverage to the elderly.

revisions of program authorizations to make the final budget meet the limits of the budget resolution, usually occurring toward the end of the budgetary process.

money received by the government in any given year.

Senate Finance Committee

responsible for writing the tax code.

Sixteenth Amendment

passed in 1913, permits Congress to levy an income tax.

Social Security Act

passed to provide a minimal level of sustenance to older Americans.

Tax expenditures

revenue losses due to special exemptions, exclusions, and deductions.

Uncontrollable expenditures

result from policies that make some group automatically eligible for benefits.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN THE FEDERAL BUREAUCRACY

Administrative discretion

authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem, especially when rules do not fit or more than one rule applies.

implementers of policy.

promotes hiring on the basis of merit and establishes a nonpartisan government service.

Command-and-control policy

regulatory strategy where government sets a requirement and then enforces individual and corporate actions to be consistent with meeting the requirement.

the withdrawal of the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.

Executive orders

regulations originating in the executive branch.

Governmental corporations

provide services that could be handled by the private sector but that generally charge cheaper rates than a private sector producer.

GS (General Service) rating

assigned to each job in federal agencies, this rating helps to determine the salary associated with the position.

passed in 1940, prohibits government workers from active participation in partisan politics.

Incentive system

regulatory strategy that rewards individuals or corporations for desired types of behavior, usually through the tax code.

Independent executive agencies

executive agencies that are not cabinet departments, not regulatory commissions, and not government corporations.

Independent regulatory commission

has responsibility for a sector of the economy to protect the public interest.

refers to the strong ties among government agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees and subcommittees.

Merit principle

using entrance exams and promotion ratings for hiring workers.

Office of Personnel Management (OPM)

responsible for hiring for most agencies.

a hiring and promotion system based on knowing the right people.

Pendleton Civil Service Act

passed in 1883, it created the federal Civil Service.

Policy implementation

the stage of policymaking between the establishment of a policy and the results of the policy for individuals.

the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.

Senior Executive Service

the very top level of the bureaucracy.

Standard operating procedures

detailed rules written to cover as many particular situations as officials can anticipate to help bureaucrats implement policies uniformly.

Street-level bureaucrats

bureaucrats who are in constant contact with the public.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN THE FEDERAL COURTS

Amicus curiae briefs

friend of the court briefs by nonlitigants who wish to influence the Court's decision by raising additional points of view and information not contained by briefs prepared by litigants' attorneys.

Appellate jurisdiction

given to a court where cases are heard on appeal from a lower court.

Class action suits

cases which permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly affected.

Courts of appeal

courts which have the power to review all final decisions of district courts, except in instances requiring direct review by the Supreme Court.

District courts

the entry point for most federal litigation.

Judicial activism

theory that judges should make bolder policy decisions to alleviate pressing needs, especially for those who are weak politically.

Judicial implementation

how and whether court decisions are translated into actual policy.

Judicial restraint

theory that judges should play minimal role in policymaking and leave policy decisions to the legislature.

Judicial review

the power of the courts to hold acts of Congress, and by implication the executive, in violation of the Constitution.

Justiciable disputes

cases that can be settled by legal methods.

Marbury v. Madison

the 1803 Supreme Court case that originated the notion of judicial review.

a statement of the legal reasoning behind the decision.

Original intent

the theory that judges should determine the intent of the framers and decide in line with their intent.

Original jurisdiction

given to a court where a case is first heard.

Political questions

conflicts between the president and Congress.

the way similar cases have been handled in the past is used as a guide to current decisions.

Senatorial courtesy

a tradition in which nominations for federal judicial positions are not confirmed when opposed by a senator of the president's party from the state in which the nominee is to serve or from the state of the nominee's residence.

Solicitor general

a presidential appointee who is in charge of the appellate court litigation of the federal government.

Standing to sue

litigants must have serious interest (sustained direct and substantial injury) from a party in a case.

an earlier decision should hold for the case being considered.

Statutory construction

a procedure in which the legislature passes legislation that clarifies existing laws so that the clarification has the effect of overturning the court's decision.

resolves disputes between and among states, maintains the national supremacy of law, ensures uniformity in the interpretation of national laws.

United States v. Nixon

1974 Supreme Court decision that required President Nixon to turn White House tapes over to the Courts.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN ECONOMIC POLICYMAKING

Antitrust policy

government regulation of business to ensure competition and prevent monopoly (control of a market by one company).

an economic system in which individuals and corporations own the principal means of production, through which they seek to reap profits.

Collective bargaining

the right of workers to have labor union representatives negotiate with management to determine working conditions.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

a government statistic that measures the change in the cost of buying a fixed basket of goods and services.

Federal Reserve System

created by Congress in 1913 to regulate the lending practices of banks and thus the money supply.

the government's decisions to tax, spend, and borrow, as reflected in the federal budget.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

government agency with broad regulatory powers over the manufacturing, contents, marketing and labeling of food and drugs.

a government statistic that measures increases in the price of goods.

Keynesian economic theory

the theory emphasizing that government spending and deficits can help the economy weather its normal ups and downs. Proponents of this theory advocate using the power of government to stimulate the economy when it is lagging.

an organization of workers intended to engage in collective bargaining.

a belief that government should not intervene in the economy.

the legal minimum hourly wage for large employers.

a system in which the government, while not commanding the economy, is still deeply involved in economic decisions.

economic theory that suggests that the supply of money is key to the nation's economic health.

Monetary policy

government decisions regarding the money supply, including the discount rates for bank borrowing, reserve requirements for banks, and trading of government securities.

Multinational Corporation

businesses with vast holdings in many countries.

National Labor Relations Act

passed by Congress in 1935, guarantees workers the right of collective bargaining; also known as the Wagner Act.

the economic policy of shielding an economy from exports.

Securities and Exchange Commission

the federal agency created during the New Deal that regulates stock fraud.

Supply-side economics

economic philosophy that holds that the key task for government economic policy is to stimulate the supply of goods, not their demand.

Unemployment rate

a government statistic that measures how many workers are actively seeking work but unable to find jobs.

World Trade Organization

international organization that regulates international trade.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN SOCIAL WELFARE POLICYMAKING

Earned Income Tax Credit

a "negative income tax" that provides income to very poor individuals in lieu of charging them federal income taxes.

Entitlement programs

government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled by law to receive, regardless of need.

Feminization of poverty

the increasing concentration of poverty among women, especially unmarried women and their children.

the movement of people to another country with the intention of remaining there.

Income distribution

the share of national income earned by various groups in the

the amount of money collected between any two points in time.

Means-tested programs

government programs available only to individuals below a poverty line.

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act

the official name of the "welfare reform" law of 1996.

official statistic indicating what a family would need to spend to maintain an "austere" standard of living.

Progressive tax

takes a higher percentage from the rich than from the poor.

Proportional tax

takes the same percentage from rich and poor.

takes a higher percentage from the poor than from the rich.

Simpson-Mazzoli Act

the Reagan-era law which provided amnesty to many immigrants and toughened border controls.

Social Security Act of 1935

created both the Social Security program and a national assistance program for poor children.

Social Security Trust Fund

the "bank account" into which Social Security contributions are "deposited" and used to pay out eligible recipients.

Social welfare policies

attempt to provide assistance and support to specific groups in society.

Temporary Assistance to Needy Families

once called "Aid to Families with

Dependent Children," this is the new name for public assistance to needy families.

Transfer payments

benefits from government where money is transferred from the general treasury to those in need.

the amount already owned.

CHAPTER NINETEEN POLICYMAKING FOR HEALTH CARE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Clean Air Act of 1970

landmark legislation that charged the Department of Transportation with the responsibility of reducing automobile emissions.

Endangered Species Act of 1973

legislation that required the government to actively protect each of hundreds of species listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, regardless of the economic effect on the surrounding towns or region.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

created in 1970, the government agency that is charged with administering various environmental laws.

the slow rise in the atmospheric temperature of the earth.

Health maintenance organization (HMO)

a form of network health plan that limits the choice of doctors and treatments.

government program designed to provide health care for the poor.

government program designed to provide health care for the elderly.

National health insurance

a program—that has been proposed in a variety of ways over the last few generations—to provide the financing, policies, and regulations to guarantee all or almost all Americans' medical health insurance.

established by Congress in 1980, a fund devoted to cleaning up toxic waste supported by taxes on toxic waste.

Water Pollution Control Act of 1972

passed by Congress to control pollution in the nation's rivers and lakes.

CHAPTER TWENTY NATIONAL SECURITY POLICYMAKING

one side's weaponry motivates the other side to procure more weaponry.

Balance of trade

the ratio of what a country pays for imports to what it earns from exports.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

created after World War II to coordinate American information and data-gathering intelligence activities.

where the U.S. and the Soviet Union were often on the brink of war.

Containment doctrine

called for the U.S. to isolate the Soviet Union to contain its advances by peaceful or coercive means.

a slow transformation from conflict thinking to cooperative thinking in foreign policy strategy designed to ease tensions between the superpowers and guarantee mutual security.

European Union (EU)

a transnational government composed of most European countries, that coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, and labor policies for their mutual benefit.

involves making choices about relations with the rest of the world.

Interdependency

actions reverberate and affect other people's actions.

a policy that directs the U.S. to stay out of other nations' conflicts.

Joint Chiefs of Staff

composed of commanding officers of each of the services, plus a chair, are the president's military advisors.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

created in 1949 to combine military forces of the U.S., Canada, Western European nations, and Turkey.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

organization comprised of oil producing countries in the Middle East.

Secretary of defense

the president's main civilian defense advisor.

Secretary of state

a key advisor to the president on foreign policy.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

also known as "Star Wars," this plan proposed creating a global umbrella in space to destroy invading missiles.

raises the price of an imported good to protect domestic business.

an international organization created in 1945 where members agree to renounce war and respect human and economic freedoms.

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE THE NEW FACE OF STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

official appointed by an elected city council and given the responsibility of implementing policy decisions.

Council of governments

association of officials from various localities that facilitates discussion of mutual problems and planning joint, cooperative activities.

initially enunciated by Judy John Dillon, states that local governments have only those powers that are explicitly given to them by the states.

Direct democracy

a method of policymaking in the U.S. unique to subnational governments where voters participate directly in policymaking.

power of cities to write their own charters and to change them without permission from the state legislature.

direct democracy technique that allows proposed constitutional amendments to be placed on a statewide ballot when enough signatures are obtained.

Lieutenant governor

an executive officer of state government, often elected by voters; typically presides over the state senate.

power of governors to veto only certain parts of a bill while allowing the rest to pass into law.

an organizational statement and grant of authority from the state to a local government.

judicial selection process whereby the governor appoints the state's judges from a list of persons recommended by the state bar or a committee of jurists and other officials.

direct democracy technique that allows voters to remove an official from office prior to completion of an elected term.

direct democracy technique that allows citizens to pass a bill originally proposed and approved in the state legislature.

Subnational governments

state and local governments.

a form of direct democracy where all voting-age adults in a community gather annually to make public policy.

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