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AP US Government and Politics Vocabulary

Terms in this set (423)

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCING GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA
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Democracy
a means of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public's preferences.
Elite and class theory
argues that society is divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite rules on the basis of its wealth.
Government
institutions that make public policy for a society.
Gross domestic product
the total value of all goods and services produced annually by the United States.
Hyperpluralism
argues that too many strong influential groups cripple the government's ability to make coherent policy by dividing government and its authority.
Linkage institutions
institutions such as parties, elections, interest groups, and the media, which provide a linkage between the preferences of citizens and the government's policy agenda.
Majority rule
weighing the desires of the majority in choosing among policy alternatives.
Minority rights
protecting the rights and freedoms of the minority in choosing among policy alternatives.
Pluralist theory
argues that there are many centers of influence in which groups compete with one another for control over public policy through bargaining and compromise.
Policy agenda
the list of subjects or problems to which people inside and outside government are paying serious attention at any given time.
Policy gridlock
where each interest uses its influence to thwart policies it opposes so that no coalition forms a majority to establish policy.
Policy impacts
the effects a policy has on people and problems.
Policymaking institutions
institutions such as Congress, the presidency, and the courts established by the Constitution to make policy.
Policymaking system
institutions of government designed to respond to each other and to the priorities of the people by governmental action.
Political culture
an overall set of values widely shared within a society.
Political issue
this arises when people disagree about a problem or about public policy choices made to combat a problem.
Political participation
the ways in which people get involved in politics.
Politics
determines whom we select as our government leaders and what policies they pursue; in other words, who gets what, when, and how.
Public goods
things that everyone can share.
Public policy
a choice that government makes in response to some issue on its agenda.
Representation
the relationship between the leaders and the followers.
Single-issue groups
groups so concerned with one matter that their members cast their votes on the basis of that issue only.
CHAPTER TWO THE CONSTITUTION
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Anti-Federalists
opposed the new Constitution, feared the new Constitution would erode fundamental liberties, and argued that the new Constitution was a class-based document serving the economic elite.
Articles of Confederation
the document that outlined the voluntary agreement between states and was adopted as the first plan for a permanent union of the United States.
Bill of Rights
the first ten Amendments to the Constitution passed after ratification specifically protecting individual liberties to fulfill promises made by the Federalists to the Anti-Federalists in return for their support.
Checks and balances
each branch requires the consent of the others for many of its decisions.
Connecticut Compromise
the plan adopted at the Constitutional Convention to provide for two chambers in Congress, one representing states equally and the other representing states on the basis of their share of the population.
Consent of the governed
people must agree on who their rulers will be.
Constitution
a nation's basic law creating institutions, dividing power, and providing guarantees to citizens.
Declaration of Independence
the document used by the signers to announce and justify the Revolutionary War and which was specifically designed to enlist the aid of foreign nations in the revolt.
Equal Rights Amendment
was first proposed in 1923, passed by Congress in 1972, but was not ratified by three-fourths of the states; this amendment mandated equality of rights under the law regardless of gender.
Factions
groups of people, currently known as political parties or interest groups, who arise as a result of unequal distribution of wealth to seize the reins of government in their own interest.
Federalist Papers
articles written to convince others to support the new constitution.
Federalists
argued for ratification of the Constitution by writing the Federalist Papers; included Madison, Hamilton, and Jay.
Judicial review
the courts have the power to decide whether the actions of the legislative and executive branches of state and national governments are in accordance with the Constitution.
Limited government
clear restrictions on what rulers could do; this safeguards natural rights.
Marbury v. Madison
Judicial review was established in this 1803 Supreme Court case.
Natural rights
these are rights to which people are entitled by natural law, including life, liberty, and property.
New Jersey Plan
a plan by some of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention to provide each state with equal representation in Congress.
Republic
a system based on the consent of the governed where power is exercised by representatives of the public.
Separation of powers
each branch of government would be independent of the others.
Shays' Rebellion
a series of armed attacks on courthouses to prevent judges from foreclosing on farms.
U.S. Constitution
the document where the foundations of U.S. government are written, providing for national institutions that each have separate but not absolute powers.
Virginia Plan
a plan by some of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention to provide each state with a share of congressional seats based on its share of the population.
Writ of habeas corpus
this enables people who are detained by authorities to secure an immediate inquiry and reasons why they have been detained.
CHAPTER THREE FEDERALISM
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Block grants
broad program grants given more or less automatically to states and communities, which exercise discretion in how the money is spent.
Categorical grants
grants that can be used only for specific purposes or categories of state and local spending.
Cooperative federalism
where state and the national government responsibilities are mingled and blurred like a marble cake; powers and policies are shared.
Devolution
transferring responsibility for policies from the federal government to state and local governments.
Dual federalism
where states and the national government each remain supreme within their own spheres of power, much like a layer cake.
Elastic clause
the statement in the Constitution which says that Congress has the power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its duties.
Enumerated powers
powers of Congress found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution.
Extradition
the Constitution requires each state to return a person charged with a crime in another state to that state for trial or imprisonment.
Federalism
a system of shared power between two or more levels of government.
Fiscal federalism
the pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system.
Formula grants
a type of categorical grant where states and local governments do not apply for a grant but are given funds on the basis of a formula.
Full faith and credit
Article IV of the Constitution requires states to provide reciprocity toward other states' public acts, records, and civil judicial proceedings.
Gibbons v. Ogden
the 1824 Supreme Court case which further expanded Congress' power to regulate interstate and international commerce by defining commerce very broadly to incorporate every form of commercial activity.
Implied powers
powers beyond Congress' enumerated powers which ensure that it can carry out its duties.
Intergovernmental relations
the term used to describe the entire set of interactions among national, state, and local governments.
McCulloch v. Maryland
the 1819 Supreme Court case, which established the supremacy of the national government over the states, included both enumerated and implied powers of Congress.
Privileges and immunities
the Constitution prohibits states from discriminating against citizens of other states.
Project grant
categorical grants awarded on the basis of competitive applications.
Supremacy clause
Article VI of the Constitution states that the supreme law of the land is the Constitution, the laws of the national government, and treaties.
Tenth Amendment
specifies that powers not delegated to the national government are reserved for the state government or the people.
Unitary government
a system where all power resides in the central government.
CHAPTER FOUR CIVIL LIBERTIES AND PUBLIC POLICY
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Bill of Rights
the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
Civil Liberties
legal and constitutional protections against government infringement of political liberties and criminal rights.
Commercial Speech
communication in the form of advertising.
Cruel and unusual punishment
Eighth Amendment prohibits such punishment.
Eighth Amendment
forbids cruel and unusual punishment, although it does not define this phrase.
Establishment clause
First Amendment prohibits government from establishing a religion; is the basis for separation of church and state.
Exclusionary rule
prohibits government from including illegally obtained evidence in a trial.
Fifth Amendment
prohibits government from forcing individuals to testify against themselves.
First Amendment
establishes freedom of religion, press, speech, and assembly.
Fourteenth Amendment
prohibits states from denying equal protection of the laws.
Free exercise clause
government is prohibited in the First Amendment from interfering in the practice of religion.
Incorporation Doctrine
legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.
Libel
publication of false or malicious statements that damage someone's reputation.
Plea bargaining
an actual bargain struck between the defendant's lawyer and the prosecutor to the effect that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser crime (or fewer crimes) in exchange for the state's promise not to prosecute the defendant for a more serious (or additional) crime.
Prior restraint
government instrument to prevent material from being published.
Probable cause
police must have a good reason to arrest someone.
Right to privacy
a contrived right from unstated liberties in the Bill of Rights.
Search warrant
written authorization from a court specifying the area to be searched and what the police are searching for.
Self-incrimination
testifying against oneself.
Sixth Amendment
designed to protect individuals accused of crimes; includes the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to a speedy and public trial.
Symbolic Speech
political actions instead of words.
Unreasonable searches and seizures
obtaining evidence without a good reason.
CHAPTER FIVE CIVIL RIGHTS AND PUBLIC POLICY
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Affirmative action
a policy designed to give special consideration to those previously discriminated against.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
strengthened protections of individuals with disabilities by requiring employers and public facilities to make "reasonable accommodations" and prohibiting employment discrimination against people with disabilities.
Civil rights
extending citizenship rights to participate to those previously denied them.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
forbids discrimination in public accommodations and facilities.
Comparable worth
equal pay for equal worth.
Equal protection of the laws
provided by the Fourteenth Amendment mandating that all people be protected by the law.
Equal Rights Amendment
proposal that equality of rights under the law not be denied on the account of sex.
Fifteenth Amendment
provides the right to vote for Blacks.
Fourteenth Amendment
prohibits states from denying equal protection of the laws.
Nineteenth Amendment
provides women with the right to vote.
Poll Taxes
taxes levied on the right to vote designed to hurt poor Blacks.
Suffrage
the legal right to vote.
Thirteenth Amendment
abolished slavery and involuntary servitude.
Twenty-fourth Amendment
prohibited poll taxes in federal elections.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
a policy designed to reduce the barriers to voting for those suffering discrimination.
White Primary
practice where only Whites could vote in primaries.
CHAPTER SIX PUBLIC OPINION AND POLITICAL ACTION
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Census
a count of the American population conducted every ten years.
Civil disobedience
a form of unconventional participation designed to consciously break a law thought to be unjust.
Demography
the science of human populations.
Exit poll
a poll taken at randomly selected polling places after the citizens have placed their votes.
Gender gap
a consistent attitudinal pattern where women are more likely than men to express liberal attitudes and to support Democratic candidates.
Melting pot
the mixture of cultures, ideas, and peoples in the United States.
Minority majority
a reference to the impending status of White, Anglo-Saxon Americans, currently holding majority status.
Political culture
an overall set of values widely shared within a society.
Political ideology
a coherent set of values and beliefs about public policy.
Political participation
the activities used by citizens to influence political outcomes.
Political socialization
the process by which citizens acquire their knowledge, feelings, and evaluations of the political world.
Protest
a form of political participation designed to change policy through unconventional tactics.
Public opinion
the distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and issues.
Random digit dialing
phone numbers are dialed at random around the country.
Random sampling
a polling technique which is based on the principle that everyone has an equal probability of being selected as part of the sample.
Reapportionment
the reallocation of 435 seats in the House of Representatives based on changes in residency and population found in the census.
Sample
a small proportion of the population chosen as representative of the whole population.
Sampling error
the level of confidence involved in a sample result—the level is dependent on the size of the sample.
CHAPTER SEVEN THE MASS MEDIA AND THE POLITICAL AGENDA
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Beats
specific locations where news frequently occurs.
Broadcast media
one of two kinds of media, includes television and radio.
Chains
media conglomerates that control a large percentage of daily newspaper circulation and some television and radio stations as well.
High-tech politics
politics where technology has shaped political behavior and the political agenda.
Investigative journalism
the use of detective-like reporting methods to unearth scandals.
Mass media
media which reaches and influences both elites and the masses.
Media event
an event staged primarily for the purpose of being covered.
Narrowcasting
strategy of some broadcast channels that appeal to a narrow, rather than a broad, audience.
Policy agenda
the list of subjects or problems to which government officials and people outside of government closely associated with those officials are paying some serious attention at any given time.
Policy entrepreneurs
political activists who invest their political capital in an issue.
Press conferences
presidential meetings with the press.
Print media
one of two kinds of media, includes newspapers and magazines.
Sound bites
a portion of a speech aired on TV of fifteen seconds or less.
Talking head
a shot of a person's face talking directly into the camera.
Trial balloons
information leaked to the media to see what the political reaction will be.
CHAPTER EIGHT POLITICAL PARTIES
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Blanket primaries
nomination contests where voters are presented with a list of the candidates from all the parties and allows them to pick candidates from all parties.
Coalition
a set of individuals and groups supporting a political party.
Coalition governments
governments where smaller parties combine with larger parties to control half of the seats in the legislature.
Closed primaries
nomination contests where only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote.
Critical election
an election where each party's coalition of support begins to break up and a new coalition of forces is formed for each party.
Linkage institutions
institutions such as parties, elections, interest groups, and the media translate inputs from the public into outputs from policymakers.
National chairperson
the person responsible for taking care of the day-to-day activities and daily duties of the party.
National committee
a coalition of representatives from the states and territories charged with maintaining the party between elections.
National convention
the supreme power within each party, which meets every four years, writes the party platform, and nominates candidates for president and vice president.
New Deal coalition
the new coalition of forces (urban, unions, Catholics, Jews, the poor, southerners, African Americans, and intellectuals) in the Democratic party that was forged as a result of national economic crisis associated with the Great Depression.
Open primaries
nomination contests where voters can decide on election day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contest.
Party competition
the battle between the two dominant parties in the American system.
Party dealignment
when voters move away from both parties.
Party eras
periods during which there has been a dominant majority party for long periods of time.
Party identification
the self-proclaimed preference for one or the other party.
Party image
what voters know or think they know about what each party stands for.
Party machine
a particular kind of party organization that depends on both specific and material inducements for rewarding loyal party members.
Party realignment
process whereby the major political parties form new support coalitions that endure for a long period.
Patronage
one of the key inducements used by machines whereby jobs are given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.
Political party
a team of men and women seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election.
Proportional representation
an electoral system where legislative seats are allocated on the basis of each party's percentage of the national vote.
Rational-choice theory
a theory that seeks to explain political processes and outcomes as consequences of purposive behavior, where political actors are assumed to have goals and who pursue those goals rationally.
Responsible party model
an ideal model of party organization recommending that parties provide distinct programs, encourage candidates to be committed to the party platform, intend to implement their programs, and accept responsibility for the performance of government.
Third parties
minor parties which either promote narrow ideological issues or are splinter groups from the major parties.
Ticket-splitting
voting with one party for one office and another for other offices.
Winner-take-all system
an electoral system where whoever gets the most votes wins the election.
CHAPTER NINE NOMINATIONS AND CAMPAIGNS
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Campaign strategy
the way candidates use scarce resources to achieve the nomination or win office.
Caucus
a meeting to determine which candidate delegates from a state party will support.
Direct mail
the use of targeted mailings to prospective supporters, usually compiled from lists of those who have contributed to candidates and parties in the past.
Federal Election Campaign Act
1974 legislation designed to regulate campaign contributions and limit campaign expenditures.
Federal Election Commission (FEC)
a bipartisan body charged with administering campaign finance laws.
Frontloading
states' decisions to move their presidential primaries and caucuses to earlier in the nomination season in order to capitalize on media attention.
Matching funds
money provided to qualifying presidential candidates from the
Presidential Election Campaign Fund, the amount of which is determined by the amount of contributions raised by the candidate.
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McGovern-Fraser Commission
a committee in the Democratic party charged with recommending changes in party rules to promote more representation of women and minorities in the delegate selection process.
National party convention
a meeting of the delegates from each state to determine the party's nominee for president.
National primary
a proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries systems who would replace these electoral methods with a nationwide primary held early in the election year.
Nomination
a party's official endorsement of a candidate for office.
Party platform
the party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years.
Political Action Committee (PAC)
a legal entity formed expressly for the purpose of contributing money to candidates and influencing electoral outcomes.
Presidential Election Campaign Fund
money from the $3 federal income tax check-off goes into this fund, which is then distributed to qualified candidates to subsidize their presidential campaigns.
Presidential primaries
a state-level election to determine which candidate the state's delegates will support.
Regional primaries
a proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries held in each geographic region.
Selective perception
the act of paying the most attention to things that one already agrees with or has a predisposition towards.
Soft money
money raised by political parties for voter registration drives and the distribution of campaign material at the grass roots level, now banned at the national level.
Superdelegates
delegates to the Democratic Party's national convention who obtain their seats on the basis of their positions within the party structure.
527 groups
independent groups that seek to influence the political process but are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly advocate the election of a particular candidate.
CHAPTER TEN ELECTIONS AND VOTING BEHAVIOR
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Civic duty
a belief in the obligation to vote.
Electoral college
the institution designated in the Constitution whereby a body of electors selects the president and vice president.
Initiative petition
direct democracy technique that allows proposed legislative items to be placed on a statewide ballot when enough signatures are obtained.
Legitimacy
widely shared belief that a democratic government was elected fairly and freely.
Mandate theory of elections
the belief that the election winner has a mandate to implement policy promises.
Motor Voter Act
this legislation requires states to let people register to vote at the same time they apply for a driver's license.
Policy voting
occurs when people base their choices on how close a candidate's issues positions are to their own issue preferences.
Political efficacy
the belief that ordinary people can influence government.
Referendum
direct democracy technique that allows citizens to approve or disapprove some legislative act, bond, issue, or constitutional amendment proposed by a state legislature.
Retrospective voting
voting theory that suggests that individuals who feel that they are better off as a result of certain policies are likely to support candidates who pledge to continue those policies, and those who feel worse off are inclined to support opposition candidates.
Suffrage
the legal right to vote.
Voter registration
a requirement that citizens register to vote before the election is held.
CHAPTER ELEVEN INTEREST GROUPS
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Actual group
a group composed of those in the potential group who are members of the interest group.
Amicus curiae briefs
"friend of the court" briefs filed by interest groups to inform the court of their position and to state how their welfare would be affected by a ruling.
Class action lawsuits
a technique used by interest groups which allows groups of people with similar complaints to combine their grievances into a single suit.
Collective good
something of value which cannot be withheld from individuals in the potential group.
Electioneering
helping sympathetic candidates get into office.
Elite theory
argues that because only a few groups have enough power to influence policy, power is concentrated into a few interlocking power centers.
Free-rider problem
a situation where individuals let others work to secure a collective good and then enjoy the benefit without contributing anything to the group effort.
Hyperpluralist theory
argues that too many groups are getting what they want at the expense of the unrepresented and that this behavior leads to incoherent public policy.
Interest groups
organizations where people with similar policy goals enter the political process to achieve those goals.
Lobbying
a communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his or her own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his or her decision.
Olson's law of large groups
suggests that the larger the group, the more difficult it will be to secure enough of the collective good to encourage participation.
Pluralist theory
argues that interest group activities provide additional representation and compete against each other to influence political outcomes.
Political action committees
a legal means for groups to participate in elections by contributing money.
Potential group
a group composed of all people who share some common interest.
Public interest lobbies
organizations that seek a collective good which does not only benefit their membership.
Right-to-work law
a state law that forbids the requirement of union membership as a condition of employment.
Selective benefits
these benefits are goods that a group can restrict to those who are members.
Single-issue groups
groups which have very narrow interests, shun compromise, and single-mindedly pursue goals.
Subgovernments
exclusive relationships composed of interest groups leaders, government agency personnel, and members of congressional committees who perform mutually beneficial services for each other at the public's expense.
Union shop
a rule established to prevent free-riders by requiring new employees to join the union where one has been granted bargaining rights.
CHAPTER TWELVE CONGRESS
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Bicameral legislature
a legislature that is divided into two chambers.
Bill
a proposed law, drafted in precise, legal language.
Casework
helping constituents as individuals cut through bureaucratic red tape to receive their rightful benefits.
Caucus
a grouping of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic.
Committee chairs
the most important influences on the congressional agenda; they schedule hearings, hire staff, appoint subcommittees, and manage committee bills.
Conference committee
a special committee formed when each chamber passes a bill in different forms, composed of members of each chamber who were appointed by each chamber's leaders to work out a compromise bill.
Filibuster
is unlimited debate, is unique to the Senate, and can only be ended by a vote for cloture by 60 members.
House Rules Committee
a committee unique to the House, which is appointed by the
Speaker of the House, reviews most bills coming from a House committee for a floor vote, and which gives each bill a rule.
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Incumbents
people who already hold office.
Joint committees
special committees composed of members from each chamber.
Legislative oversight
the process of monitoring the bureaucracy and its administration of policy.
Majority leader
the Speaker's principal partisan ally who is responsible for soliciting support for the party's position on legislation.
Minority leader
is the minority party's counterpart to the majority party's leadership.
Pork barrel
list of federal projects, grants, and contracts available to cities, businesses, colleges, and institutions.
Select committees
appointed for a specific purpose.
Seniority system
a system used until the 1970s where majority party members who had served on their committees the longest, regardless of party loyalty, mental state, or competence, were automatically appointed chair of the committee.
Speaker of the House
as mandated by the Constitution, is next in line after the vice president to succeed a president who is unable to fulfill his/her term and who presides over the House.
Standing committees
committees formed in each chamber to handle bills in different policy areas.
Whip
The majority or minority leader's principle tool for securing support for legislation and who lobby partisans for support.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN THE PRESIDENCY
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Cabinet
the group of presidential advisors who head the executive departments.
Council of Economic Advisers (CEA)
members advise the president on economic policy and prepare the Annual Report of the CEA.
Crisis
a sudden, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous event.
Impeachment
the political equivalent of an indictment for removing a discredited president.
Legislative veto
a clause which allows Congress to override the action of the executive.
National Security Council (NSC)
a committee that links the president's key foreign and military advisors.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
responsible for preparing the president's budget and assessing the budgetary implications of legislative proposals.
Pocket veto
this occurs when Congress adjourns within 10 days after submitting a bill and the president takes no action to sign it or veto it.
Presidential coattails
where voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president's party because those candidates support the president.
Twenty-fifth Amendment
passed in 1967, permits the vice president to become acting president in the event that the president is temporarily disabled.
Twenty-second Amendment
passed in 1951, limits presidents to two terms.
Veto
sending the legislation back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it.
War Powers Resolution
passed in 1973, requires presidents to consult with Congress prior to using military force and mandates the withdrawal of forces after sixty days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension.
Watergate
a political scandal involving President Nixon's abuse of his powers.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENT, AND THE BUDGET
THE POLITICS OF TAXING AND SPENDING
Appropriations bill
bill passed annually to fund an authorized program.
Authorization bill
an act of Congress that establishes a discretionary government program or an entitlement, or that continues or changes such programs.
Budget
a policy document that allocates burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures).
Budget resolution
a bill setting limits on expenditures based on revenue projections, agreed to by both houses of Congress in April each year.
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
an act designed to reform the budgeting process by making Congress less dependent on the president's budget; established a fixed budget calendar and a budget committee in each house.
Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
research agency of Congress, responsible to it for providing analyses of budget proposals, revenue forecasts, and related information.
Continuing resolutions
laws that allow agencies to spend at the previous year's level.
Deficit
occurs when government spends more money than it receives in taxes in the fiscal year.
Entitlements
expenditures for which the total amount spent is not by congressional appropriation, but rather by rules of eligibility established by Congress.
Expenditures
money spent by the government in any one year.
Federal debt
all of the money borrowed by the government over the years that is still outstanding.
House Ways and Means Committee
responsible for originating all revenue bills.
Income tax
the portion of money individuals are required to pay to the government from the money they earned.
Incrementalism
the best predictor of this year's budget is last year's budget plus a little bit more.
Medicare
in 1965, this program was added to Social Security to provide hospital and physician coverage to the elderly.
Reconciliation
revisions of program authorizations to make the final budget meet the limits of the budget resolution, usually occurring toward the end of the budgetary process.
Revenues
money received by the government in any given year.
Senate Finance Committee
responsible for writing the tax code.
Sixteenth Amendment
passed in 1913, permits Congress to levy an income tax.
Social Security Act
passed to provide a minimal level of sustenance to older Americans.
Tax expenditures
revenue losses due to special exemptions, exclusions, and deductions.
Uncontrollable expenditures
result from policies that make some group automatically eligible for benefits.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN THE FEDERAL BUREAUCRACY
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Administrative discretion
authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem, especially when rules do not fit or more than one rule applies.
Bureaucracy
implementers of policy.
Civil service
promotes hiring on the basis of merit and establishes a nonpartisan government service.
Command-and-control policy
regulatory strategy where government sets a requirement and then enforces individual and corporate actions to be consistent with meeting the requirement.
Deregulation
the withdrawal of the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.
Executive orders
regulations originating in the executive branch.
Governmental corporations
provide services that could be handled by the private sector but that generally charge cheaper rates than a private sector producer.
GS (General Service) rating
assigned to each job in federal agencies, this rating helps to determine the salary associated with the position.
Hatch Act
passed in 1940, prohibits government workers from active participation in partisan politics.
Incentive system
regulatory strategy that rewards individuals or corporations for desired types of behavior, usually through the tax code.
Independent executive agencies
executive agencies that are not cabinet departments, not regulatory commissions, and not government corporations.
Independent regulatory commission
has responsibility for a sector of the economy to protect the public interest.
Iron triangles
refers to the strong ties among government agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees and subcommittees.
Merit principle
using entrance exams and promotion ratings for hiring workers.
Office of Personnel Management (OPM)
responsible for hiring for most agencies.
Patronage
a hiring and promotion system based on knowing the right people.
Pendleton Civil Service Act
passed in 1883, it created the federal Civil Service.
Policy implementation
the stage of policymaking between the establishment of a policy and the results of the policy for individuals.
Regulation
the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.
Senior Executive Service
the very top level of the bureaucracy.
Standard operating procedures
detailed rules written to cover as many particular situations as officials can anticipate to help bureaucrats implement policies uniformly.
Street-level bureaucrats
bureaucrats who are in constant contact with the public.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN THE FEDERAL COURTS
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Amicus curiae briefs
friend of the court briefs by nonlitigants who wish to influence the Court's decision by raising additional points of view and information not contained by briefs prepared by litigants' attorneys.
Appellate jurisdiction
given to a court where cases are heard on appeal from a lower court.
Class action suits
cases which permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly affected.
Courts of appeal
courts which have the power to review all final decisions of district courts, except in instances requiring direct review by the Supreme Court.
District courts
the entry point for most federal litigation.
Judicial activism
theory that judges should make bolder policy decisions to alleviate pressing needs, especially for those who are weak politically.
Judicial implementation
how and whether court decisions are translated into actual policy.
Judicial restraint
theory that judges should play minimal role in policymaking and leave policy decisions to the legislature.
Judicial review
the power of the courts to hold acts of Congress, and by implication the executive, in violation of the Constitution.
Justiciable disputes
cases that can be settled by legal methods.
Marbury v. Madison
the 1803 Supreme Court case that originated the notion of judicial review.
Opinion
a statement of the legal reasoning behind the decision.
Original intent
the theory that judges should determine the intent of the framers and decide in line with their intent.
Original jurisdiction
given to a court where a case is first heard.
Political questions
conflicts between the president and Congress.
Precedent
the way similar cases have been handled in the past is used as a guide to current decisions.
Senatorial courtesy
a tradition in which nominations for federal judicial positions are not confirmed when opposed by a senator of the president's party from the state in which the nominee is to serve or from the state of the nominee's residence.
Solicitor general
a presidential appointee who is in charge of the appellate court litigation of the federal government.
Standing to sue
litigants must have serious interest (sustained direct and substantial injury) from a party in a case.
Stare decisis
an earlier decision should hold for the case being considered.
Statutory construction
a procedure in which the legislature passes legislation that clarifies existing laws so that the clarification has the effect of overturning the court's decision.
Supreme Court
resolves disputes between and among states, maintains the national supremacy of law, ensures uniformity in the interpretation of national laws.
United States v. Nixon
1974 Supreme Court decision that required President Nixon to turn White House tapes over to the Courts.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN ECONOMIC POLICYMAKING
...
Antitrust policy
government regulation of business to ensure competition and prevent monopoly (control of a market by one company).
Capitalism
an economic system in which individuals and corporations own the principal means of production, through which they seek to reap profits.
Collective bargaining
the right of workers to have labor union representatives negotiate with management to determine working conditions.
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
a government statistic that measures the change in the cost of buying a fixed basket of goods and services.
Federal Reserve System
created by Congress in 1913 to regulate the lending practices of banks and thus the money supply.
Fiscal policy
the government's decisions to tax, spend, and borrow, as reflected in the federal budget.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
government agency with broad regulatory powers over the manufacturing, contents, marketing and labeling of food and drugs.
Inflation
a government statistic that measures increases in the price of goods.
Keynesian economic theory
the theory emphasizing that government spending and deficits can help the economy weather its normal ups and downs. Proponents of this theory advocate using the power of government to stimulate the economy when it is lagging.
Labor union
an organization of workers intended to engage in collective bargaining.
Laissez-faire
a belief that government should not intervene in the economy.
Minimum wage
the legal minimum hourly wage for large employers.
Mixed economy
a system in which the government, while not commanding the economy, is still deeply involved in economic decisions.
Monetarism
economic theory that suggests that the supply of money is key to the nation's economic health.
Monetary policy
government decisions regarding the money supply, including the discount rates for bank borrowing, reserve requirements for banks, and trading of government securities.
Multinational Corporation
businesses with vast holdings in many countries.
National Labor Relations Act
passed by Congress in 1935, guarantees workers the right of collective bargaining; also known as the Wagner Act.
Protectionism
the economic policy of shielding an economy from exports.
Securities and Exchange Commission
the federal agency created during the New Deal that regulates stock fraud.
Supply-side economics
economic philosophy that holds that the key task for government economic policy is to stimulate the supply of goods, not their demand.
Unemployment rate
a government statistic that measures how many workers are actively seeking work but unable to find jobs.
World Trade Organization
international organization that regulates international trade.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN SOCIAL WELFARE POLICYMAKING
...
Earned Income Tax Credit
a "negative income tax" that provides income to very poor individuals in lieu of charging them federal income taxes.
Entitlement programs
government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled by law to receive, regardless of need.
Feminization of poverty
the increasing concentration of poverty among women, especially unmarried women and their children.
Immigration
the movement of people to another country with the intention of remaining there.
Income distribution
the share of national income earned by various groups in the
United States.
...
Income
the amount of money collected between any two points in time.
Means-tested programs
government programs available only to individuals below a poverty line.
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act
the official name of the "welfare reform" law of 1996.
Poverty line
official statistic indicating what a family would need to spend to maintain an "austere" standard of living.
Progressive tax
takes a higher percentage from the rich than from the poor.
Proportional tax
takes the same percentage from rich and poor.
Regressive tax
takes a higher percentage from the poor than from the rich.
Simpson-Mazzoli Act
the Reagan-era law which provided amnesty to many immigrants and toughened border controls.
Social Security Act of 1935
created both the Social Security program and a national assistance program for poor children.
Social Security Trust Fund
the "bank account" into which Social Security contributions are "deposited" and used to pay out eligible recipients.
Social welfare policies
attempt to provide assistance and support to specific groups in society.
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families
once called "Aid to Families with
Dependent Children," this is the new name for public assistance to needy families.
...
Transfer payments
benefits from government where money is transferred from the general treasury to those in need.
Wealth
the amount already owned.
CHAPTER NINETEEN POLICYMAKING FOR HEALTH CARE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
...
Clean Air Act of 1970
landmark legislation that charged the Department of Transportation with the responsibility of reducing automobile emissions.
Endangered Species Act of 1973
legislation that required the government to actively protect each of hundreds of species listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, regardless of the economic effect on the surrounding towns or region.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
created in 1970, the government agency that is charged with administering various environmental laws.
Global warming
the slow rise in the atmospheric temperature of the earth.
Health maintenance organization (HMO)
a form of network health plan that limits the choice of doctors and treatments.
Medicaid
government program designed to provide health care for the poor.
Medicare
government program designed to provide health care for the elderly.
National health insurance
a program—that has been proposed in a variety of ways over the last few generations—to provide the financing, policies, and regulations to guarantee all or almost all Americans' medical health insurance.
Superfund
established by Congress in 1980, a fund devoted to cleaning up toxic waste supported by taxes on toxic waste.
Water Pollution Control Act of 1972
passed by Congress to control pollution in the nation's rivers and lakes.
CHAPTER TWENTY NATIONAL SECURITY POLICYMAKING
...
Arms race
one side's weaponry motivates the other side to procure more weaponry.
Balance of trade
the ratio of what a country pays for imports to what it earns from exports.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
created after World War II to coordinate American information and data-gathering intelligence activities.
Cold war
where the U.S. and the Soviet Union were often on the brink of war.
Containment doctrine
called for the U.S. to isolate the Soviet Union to contain its advances by peaceful or coercive means.
Détente
a slow transformation from conflict thinking to cooperative thinking in foreign policy strategy designed to ease tensions between the superpowers and guarantee mutual security.
European Union (EU)
a transnational government composed of most European countries, that coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, and labor policies for their mutual benefit.
Foreign policy
involves making choices about relations with the rest of the world.
Interdependency
actions reverberate and affect other people's actions.
Isolationism
a policy that directs the U.S. to stay out of other nations' conflicts.
Joint Chiefs of Staff
composed of commanding officers of each of the services, plus a chair, are the president's military advisors.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
created in 1949 to combine military forces of the U.S., Canada, Western European nations, and Turkey.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
organization comprised of oil producing countries in the Middle East.
Secretary of defense
the president's main civilian defense advisor.
Secretary of state
a key advisor to the president on foreign policy.
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
also known as "Star Wars," this plan proposed creating a global umbrella in space to destroy invading missiles.
Tariff
raises the price of an imported good to protect domestic business.
United Nations
an international organization created in 1945 where members agree to renounce war and respect human and economic freedoms.
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE THE NEW FACE OF STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT
...
City manager
official appointed by an elected city council and given the responsibility of implementing policy decisions.
Council of governments
association of officials from various localities that facilitates discussion of mutual problems and planning joint, cooperative activities.
Dillon's Rule
initially enunciated by Judy John Dillon, states that local governments have only those powers that are explicitly given to them by the states.
Direct democracy
a method of policymaking in the U.S. unique to subnational governments where voters participate directly in policymaking.
Home rule
power of cities to write their own charters and to change them without permission from the state legislature.
Initiative
direct democracy technique that allows proposed constitutional amendments to be placed on a statewide ballot when enough signatures are obtained.
Lieutenant governor
an executive officer of state government, often elected by voters; typically presides over the state senate.
Line-item veto
power of governors to veto only certain parts of a bill while allowing the rest to pass into law.
Local charter
an organizational statement and grant of authority from the state to a local government.
Merit Plan
judicial selection process whereby the governor appoints the state's judges from a list of persons recommended by the state bar or a committee of jurists and other officials.
Recall
direct democracy technique that allows voters to remove an official from office prior to completion of an elected term.
Referendum
direct democracy technique that allows citizens to pass a bill originally proposed and approved in the state legislature.
Subnational governments
state and local governments.
Town meeting
a form of direct democracy where all voting-age adults in a community gather annually to make public policy.
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