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Book Notes

Terms in this set (52)

What are the three common characteristics of emotional reactions?
1. Emotional reactions are biphasic; a primary reaction is followed by an opposite after-reaction
2. The primary reaction becomes weaker or habituates with repeated stimulations.
3. The weakening of the primary reaction with repitition is accompanied by a strengthening of the after-reaction
Why do we say that the opponent process theory of motivation is a "homeostatic theory"?
It keeps us on an even keel and minimize the highs and the lows, helping us to better control our emotions.
According to the opponent process of motivation, emotional responses elicited by an ___________ ______ are counteracted by an opposing process in the organism
environmental event
If the original elicited emotion is rewarding, the opponent process will activate ______ _____ and create an ______ _____
anti-reward circuits and create an aversive state
The ____________, or ________, process is assumed to become stronger each time it is activated.
Compensatory or opponent process
Drug addiction involves efforts to minimize the __________ nature of the opponent or _________ processes attendant to repeated drug intake.
aversive nature of the anti-reward process
According to Cartesian dualism, there are two classes of human behavior: __________ and ____________. ________ behavior consists of automatic reactions to external stimuli and is mediated by a special mechanism called a ______. _______ behavior, by contrast, does not have to be triggered by external stimuli and occurs because of the person's ________ ______ to act in that particular manner.
Involuntary and voluntary behavior; Involuntary .... mediated by a special mechanism called a REFLEX; Voluntary behavior .... occurs because of the person's CONSCIOUS INTENT
Descartes called involuntary behavior ___________ because the sensory input is ______ in the ______ output.
Involuntary behavior also called REFLEXIVE because the sensory input is REFLECTED in the RESPONSE output.
Involuntary action is produced by the _______ _____ that involves messages sent from the _____ to the ______ and then from the _____ to the _____. Voluntary action is initiated by the _____, with messages sent to the _____ and then to the ______.
Involuntary action is produced by the REFLEC ARC that involves messages sent from the SENSES to the BRAIN and then from the BRAIN to the MUSCLES. Voluntary action is initiated by the BRAIN, with messages sent to the BRAIN and then to the MUSCLES.
Descartes assumed that the ______ ______ of behavior was the only one available to animals other than humans
Involuntary mechanism
Descartes considered _____ _____ and ______ behavior to be uniquely human attributes which only existed because human beings were thought to have a _____ or a _____
FREE WILL and VOLUNTARY behavior; MIND or a SOUL.
Who introduced the "mind-body dualism"?
Descartes
What are the two intellectual traditions that form he foundations of the modern study of learning?
Mentalism - concerned with the contents and workings of the mind; Reflexology - concerned with the mechanisms of reflexive behavior.
What did Descartes believe to be true about the origin of the contents of the mind?
Descartes believed that the mind came from sense experiences, but he also believed that the mind contained ideas that were innate and existed in all human beings independent of personal experience (Nativism)
John Locke was an _________, he believed that the mind started out as a _____ ______ and that the ideas people had were acquired directly or indirectly through ________ ______ birth
EMPIRICIST; CLEAN SLATE (tabula rasa); through EXPERIENCES AFTER birth
Thomas Hobbes believed, unlike Descartes, that the mind operated just as ______ and _______ as a ________.
PREDICTABLY and LAWFULLY as a REFLEX.
More specifically, Hobbes proposed that voluntary behavior was governed by the principle of _________.
Hedonism
British empiricist proposed that simple sensations were combined into more complex ideas by ______.
Associations
What were the three principles, proposed by Aristotle, for the establishment of associations?
1. Contiguity
2. Similarity
3. Contrast
Which of the three principles for the establishment of associations is said to be the most prominent in studies of association? Define what it states.
The CONTIGUITY priniciple which states that if two events repeatedly occur together in space or time, they will become linked or associated.
Similarity as a basis for the formation of associations has been confirmed by modern studies of _______
LEARNING
Modern studies of learning has confirmed that ______ can be a basis for the formation of _________.
SIMILARITY; ASSOCIATIONS
In addition, the formation of an association between two events was considered to depend on the _____ of _______ ________ in which each event was already involved and the ______ of these past associations to the current one being _____.
NUMBER of OTHER ASSOCIATIONS; SIMILARITY of these past associations to the current one being FORMED.
Which type of philosophers formulated the secondary laws of associations? Who was the most prominent man and what did he propose?
Empiricist philosophers. Brown proposed that the association between two stimuli depended on the intensity of those stimuli and how frequently or recently the stimuli occurred together. In addition, the formation of an association between two events was considered to depend on the number of other associations in which each event was already involved and the similarity of these past associations to the current one being formed.
Empiricist, Brown, proposed that the associations between two stimuli depended on the _____ of those stimuli and how ______ or ______ the stimuli occurred together.
INTENSITY and how FREQUENTLY or RECENTLY the stimuli occurred together.
According to the empiricist Brown, the intensity of those stimuli and how frequently or recently the stimuli occurred together determined the _______ between _____ ________.
ASSOCIATIONS between TWO STIMULI
Empirical investigation of the mechanisms of associations did not being until the pioneering work of psychologist _________ who invented _________ _______
Ebbinghaus; NONSENSE SYLLABLES
The general method of using nonsense syllables allowed Ebinghaus to answer such questions: ______,
1. How the strength of an association was improved with increased training
2. Whether nonsense syllables that were close together in a list were associated more strongly than nonsense syllables tat were farther apart
3. Whether a syllable became more strongly associated with the next one on the list (a forward association) rather than with the preceding one (a backwards association).
Who proposed that stimuli did not elicit reflex responses directly in all cases and that rather, in some cases, a stimulus could release a response from ________
Sechenov; a stimulus could release a response from INHIBITION.
______ showed experimentally that not all reflexes are innate
Pavlov
Who showed experimentally that not all reflexes are innate?
Pavlov
Much of modern behavior theory has been built on the reflex concept of ______-_______ or _-_ unit and the concept of _________
STIMULUS-RESPONSE, or S-R unit and the concept of ASSOCIATIONS
What are the three primary sources which now dominate contemporary research in learning?
1. Comparative cognition (and the evolution of the mind)
2. Functional neurology (how the nervous system works)
3. Animal modes of human behavior
Darwain took Descartes's ideas about _____ _____ one step further, however Darwin, unlike Descartes, did not assume that humans (and only humans) have a _____.
Human Nature; did not assume humans (and only humans) have a MIND.
Pavlov became committed to the principle of _____, according to which all key physiological function are governed by the ______ _____.
Nervism; NERVOUS SYSTEM
Pavlov claims that studies of learning tell us about the functions of the ____ _____.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Behavioral studies of learning tell us many things about the machinery of the nervous system, including:
1. What kinds of plasticity the nervous system is capable of
2. Conditions under which learning can take place
3. How long learned responses persist
4. Circumstances under which learned information becomes accessible or not
Drawing inferences about animal behavior on the basis of research with other animal species can be HAZARDOUS if they are ________
UNWARRANTED
Drawing inferences about animal behavior on the basis of research with other animal species can be CONTROVERSIAL if the _______ for the model system approach is _____ ______
RATIONALE for the model system approach is POORLY UNDERSTOOD
In an animal model, factors can be _____ and ______
CONTROLLED and MINIMIZED
Drawing inferences about animal behavior on the basis of research with other animal species can be CONTROVERSIAL if the rationale for the ____ _____ _____ is poorly understood
...
What do we look at when we want to determine if a model is valid or not?
Relevant features / Relevant functions
We can gain insights into human behavior based on the study of nonhuman animals if the ______ _____ in the two species are similar
Causal relations
"_______ learning" is a prominent approach in this area or studying artificial intelligent systems where learning mechanisms are freqiently used to enable the response of those systems to be altered by _____ or ______
REINFORCEMENT; EXPERIENCE or FEEDBACK
What do we see when we see the evidence of learning?
We see the emergence of a change in behavior - The performance of a new response or the suppression of a response that occurred previously.
______ is a process which produces changes in behavior that are too short-lasting to be considered instances of learning. Physical exertion may result in a gradual ______ in the _____ of a response because the individual becomes _____
FATIGUE; REDUCTION/decrease; VIGOR; TIRED
Behavior may be temporarily altered through:
1. Fatigue
2. Change in stimulus conditions
3. Alterations in the physiological or motivational state
4. Administration of psychoactive drugs
We look at learning from multiple perspectives; describe each task.
1. Efficient Cause - describing the phenomenon and the circumstances under which is it observed

2. Formal Cause - Develop formal models that allow us to predict

3. Final Cause - A form of explanation that focuses on why a phenomenon is observed

4. Material Cause - Underlying biological mechanisms
Investigators commited to the general-process approach have focused on the _________ of various instances of learning and have assumed that learning phenomena are products of ______ ______ that operate in much the same way in different learning situations
commonalities; elemental processes
Generality is assumed to exist in the _____ or ____ of learning -- not in the ____ or _____ of learning
RULES or PROCESSES of learning; not CONTENTS or SPEED of learning
Thorndike, who studied learning, assumed that the rules of learning were universal. His view was that these universal rules of learning are the "_____ of _____"
LAWS OF EFFECT
An important methodological implication of the general-process approach is that general rules of learning may be discovered by studying any species or _____ _____ that exhibits ______.
response system that exhibits LEARNING
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