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Research Methods and Program Evaluation

Terms in this set (157)

11 Current Trends in Counseling Research
1. More studies seem to be sporting multiple authors and female authors.
2. Increased attention is being paid to multicultural issues.
3. Field-based professionals and practitioners are submitting fewer contributions.
4. Meta-studies are being used to summarize findings related to a given topic or a theme. Cohen's d effect size (ES) statistic is used to gauge how strong a relationship exists (i.e., small 0.2, medium 0.5, or large 0.8).
5. A majority of studies rely on graduate students and adults as subjects.
6. Qualitative (non-numerical) research popularized by luminaries such as Freud and Piaget seems to be making a comeback. Graduate programs are emphasizing qualitative procedures and research.
7. N = 1 single-subject designs seem to be making a comeback due to a number of advantages of this paradigm. First, only one person is required and counselors are very interested in individual change. The setting is usually a real-world situation rather than a laboratory setting. Finally, it is generally easier for consumers of mental health services to understand studies of this type since they generally need fewer complex statistical analyses. A type of single-subject (N = 1) numerical experiment using the ABABA design is common once again. This model, popularized in the 1970s by the behavior modification rage, tracks the client with an extended baseline, through treatment, to the outcome. Single-subject research is dubbed as idiographic, while studies using groups of individuals to discover general principles are called nomothetic.
8. Counselors and graduate students feel they need more training in APA publication guidelines in order to feel comfortable making journal submissions.
9. Kurt Lewin's concept of action research is popular because it is intended to improve the situation (not just advance knowledge) with local people/clients who will be better off at the end of the research. Self-surveys are often used to conduct Action Research. Action research bridges the gap between research and application/practice.
10. Using the Internet to conduct an experiment. Advantages can include rapid data collection, lower research costs, and very often the ability to secure very large sample sizes.
11. Neuroscience is being used to help guide diagnostic and treatment procedures. More females are being used in such studies since most traditional neuroscience findings are biased toward male humans and other mammals. The microbiome gut-mental health connection is emerging, especially in regard to bad bacteria and good bacteria (think probiotics such as organic yogurt or kefir) in the gastrointestinal tract.
701. The most valuable type of research is:
c. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.
(p.415)
Quasi-experiment:
Researcher uses preexisting groups and hence the IV cannot be altered. You cannot state that IV caused the DV. Example: "ex post facto study"- after the fact.
Factor Analysis
Statistical procedure that uses the important or underlying factors in an attempt to summarize a lot of variables.
Internal Validity
Whether the DVs where truly influenced by the IVs
External Validity
Whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations
702. Experiments emphasize parsimony which means
Interpreting the results in the simplest way
Chi Square
Nonparametric statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution
703. Occam's Razor suggests that experimenters
interpret the results in the simplest manner. Parsimony may be referred to as Occam's Razor, the principle of economy or Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon.
704. A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the clients in the study is secretly seeing a gestalt therapist. This experiment
is confounded/flawed.
705. Nondirective is to person-centered as
parsimony is to Occam's Razor
706. An experiment is said to be confounded when
undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment. May also be called a contaminating variable.
707. In experimental terminology IV stands for _______ and DV stands for ________
Independent variable; dependent variable
Independent Variable
Variable the researcher manipulates, controls, alters or wishes to experiment with.
dependent variable
The outcome or the data.
Causal Comparative Design
a true experiment WITHOUT random assignment
(Data from the causal comparative ex post factor [after the fact] design can be analyzed with a test of significance [t test or ANOVA] just like any true experiment.)
708. A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeedback training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams. If this professor decides to conduct a formal experiment the IV will be the ______, and the DV will be the _______.
biofeedback; board exam score
709. Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the
IV or independent variable
710. In order for the professor of counselor education (see question 708) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will need a(n) _______ and a(n) _______.
control group; experimental group.
Control Group
Does not receive the IV
711. In order for the professor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in question 708 the experimental group would need to receive
the manipulated IV (biofeedback training)
712. Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of
R. A. Fisher.
Hypothesis
A statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV
713. The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment in question 708 was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest that
Biofeedback will not improve board exams
714. The hunch is known as the experimental or alternative hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis suggests that a difference will be evident between the control group and the experimental group (i.e., the group receiving the IV). Thus, if the experiment in question 708 were conducted, the experimental hypothesis would suggest that
the biofeedback would raise board scores. Alternative hypothesis/hunch can also be called affirmative hypothesis.
715. From a purely statistical standpoint, in order to compare a control group (which does not receive the IV or experimental manipulation) to the experimental group the researcher will need
a test of significance. example: t test
716. When you see the letter "P" in relation to a test of significance it means
probability
Ethnographic research
involves data that is collected via interviews, observations and inspection of documents
717. In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually
.05 or less
718. P = .05 really means that
there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors. May also see this referred to as the level of significance, alpha, or confidence level.
719. P = .05 really means that
differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times.
720. The study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P =
.001
721. Type I and Type II errors are called ______ and _____ respectively
alpha; beta
Type I (alpha) error
when a researcher rejects a null hypothesis that is true
Type II (beta) error
the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false
722. A Type I error occurs when
you reject null when it is true
723. A Type II error
is also called a beta error and means you accept null when it is false
724. Assume the experiment in question 708 is conducted. The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case. The researcher has made a
Type I error.
725. A counselor educator decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will
reduce type I and type II errors
726. If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001 then
alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase
727. A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness training will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimental group receives assertiveness training while a control group does not. In order to test for significant differences between the groups the counselor should utilize
the student's "t" test
ANOVA
analysis of variance
ANCOVA
the analysis of covariance; tests two or more groups while controlling for extraneous variables (aka "covariates")
Kruskal-Wallis
used instead of the ANOVA when data is nonparametric
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
used in place of the t test when the data are nonparametric and you wish to test whether two correlated means differ significantly. (use the "co" to remind you of correlated)
Mann-Whitney U test
determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differ significantly when data are nonparametric
(memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated')
Spearman correlation or Kendall's tau
used in place of the Pearson r when parametric assumptions cannot be utilized
728. The researcher in question 727 now attempts a more complex experiment. One group receives no assertiveness training, a second group receives four assertiveness training sessions, and a third receives six sessions. The statistic of choice would
be the ANOVA
729. If the researcher in the previous question utilized two IV's then the statistic of choice would be
the two-way ANOVA or MANOVA
730. To complete a "t" test you would consult a tabled value of "t". In order to see if significant differences exist in an ANOVA you would
consult a table for "F" values
731. Which level of significance would best rule out chance factors?
.001
(732) When a researcher uses correlation, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV. A researcher might ask, for example, how IQ correlates with the incidence of panic disorder. Again, nothing is manipulated; just measured. In cases such as this a correlation coefficient will reveal
the relationship between IQ and panic disorder
correlation coefficient
statistic that indicates the degree or magnitude of relationship between two variables; often written as "r"; ranges from 0.00 (no relationship) to 1.0 or -1.0 signifying perfect relationships.
733. If data indicate that students who study a lot get very high scores on state counselor licensing exams, then the correlation between study time and LPC exam scores would be
positive
positive correlation/covary positively
when both variables change in the same direction
negative correlation/covary negatively
when variables are inversely associated; when one goes up the other goes down
biserial correlation
One variable is continuous while the other is dichotomous.
734. Which of the following would most likely yield a perfect correlation of 1.00?
length in inches and length in centimeters.
735. A good guess would be that if you would correlate the length of CACREP graduates' baby toes with their NCE scores the result would
0.00, no association
736. Dr X discovered that the correlation between therapists who hold NCC status and therapists who practice systematic desensitization is .90. A student who perused Dr. X's research told his fellow students that Dr. X had discovered that attaining NCC status causes therapists to become behaviorally oriented. The student is incorrect because
correlation does not imply causal
Bivariate
two variables
multivariate
involving more than two variables
737. Behaviorists often utilize N=1, which is called intensive experimental design. The first step in this approach would be to
take a baseline measure
N =
The number of persons being studied
Case study
popularized by Feud; n = 1; also known as idiographic studies or single-subject designs
738. In a new study the clients do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment for depression or whether they are simply part of the control group. This is, nevertheless, known to the researcher. Thus, this is
Single-blind study
739. A large study at a major university gave an experimental group of clients a new type of therapy that was intended to ameliorate test anxiety. The control group did not receive the new therapy. Neither the clients nor the researchers knew which students received the new treatment. This was a
double-blind study.
Typical AB/ABA design
time series; simplest type of single-subject research; baseline (A) -> intervention (B) -> new baseline (A)
740. Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to
degree of relationship
Pearson's r using which kind of data
Interval and ratio; not considered pure experimental
Spearman rho uses which kind of data
ordinal; not considered pure experimental
741. In a normal curve the mean, the median, and the mode all fall precisely in the middle of the curve. From a graphical standpoint the so-called normal or Gaussian curve (named after the astronomer/mathematician K. F. Gauss) looks like
a symmetrical bell
skewed distributions
curves that are not symmetrical (i.e., those which are asymmetrical).
What is the 68-95-99.7 rule?
The 68-95-99.7 rule states that in any normal distribution, approximately 68% of the observations fall within one standard deviation of the mean, approximately 95% of the observations fall within two standard deviations of the mean, and approximately 99.7% of the observations fall within three standard deviations of the mean.
Almost all scores fall within __ standard deviations from the mean?
3
742. The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median and the mode. The mode is
the most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency
The highest point on the curve is
the modal score
Mean is
the arithmetic average
743. A bimodal distribution has two modes (i.e., most frequently occurring scores). Graphically, this looks roughly like
a camel's back with two humps
744. In a basic curve or so-called frequency polygon the point of maximum concentration is the
mode; often abbreviated by Mo; least-important measure of central tendency
745. The most useful measure of central tendency is the
mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it
The median is the most useful measure when
there is a skewed distribution; often abbreviated by Md or Mdn
746. In a career counseling session an electrical engineer mentions three jobs he has held. The first paid $10 per hour, the second paid $30 per hour, and the third paid a higher rate of $50 per hour. The counselor responds that the client is averaging $30 per hour. The counselor is using
the mean
Harmonic Mean
The mean of n numbers expressed as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the numbers
747. From a mathematical standpoint, the mean is merely the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores. The mean is misleading when
the distribution is skewed and/or there are extreme scores
748. When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally statisticians call it
a skewed distribution.
749. The median is
the middle score in the distribution of the scores when data is arranged from highest to lowest
750. In a new experiment, a counselor educator wants to ferret out the effects of more than one IV. She will use a ______ design
factorial
Solomon four-group design
experimental design in which the experimental and control groups are studied with and without a pretest
751. Regardless of the shape, the _______ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically
mode
752. A group of first-semester graduate students in counseling took an experimental counseling exam that was much more difficult than the NCE. All of the students scored very low. A distribution of their score would
positively skewed
753. Nine of the world's finest counselor educators are given an elementary exam on counseling theory. Needless to say, all of them scored extremely high. The distribution of the scores would most likely be
negatively skewed
754. Billy received an 82 on his college math final. This is Billy's raw score on the test. A raw score simply refers to the number of items correctly answered. A raw score is expressed in the units by which it was originally obtained. The raw score is not altered mathematically. Billy's raw score indicates that
more information is obviously necessary.
755. A distribution with class intervals can be graphically displayed via a bar graph also called a
histogram
756. When a horizontal line is drawn under a frequency distribution it is known as
the x axis
757. The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis is also known as
the abscissa
758. The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs. The y axis is also known as the
ordinate
759. If a distribution is bimodal, then there is a good chance that
the researcher is working with two distinct populations
760. If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings, then the experiment
is said to be reliable
761. The range is a measure of variance and usually is calculated by determining the difference between the highest and the lowest score. Thus, on a test where the top score was a 93 and the lowest score was 33 out of 100, the range would be
60 OR 61; some use an "inclusive range" which is the highest score minus the lowest score plus one.
762. A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to
a correlation coefficient
763. A counselor educator is teaching two separate classes in individual inventory. In the morning class the counselor educator has 53 students and in the afternoon class she has 177 students. A statistician would expect that the range of scores on a test would be
greater in the afternoon class than the morning class.
764. The variance is a measure of dispersion of scores around some measure of central tendency. The variance is the standard deviation squared. A popular IQ test has a standard deviation (SD) of 15. A counselor would expect that if the mean IQ score is 100, then
68% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115
765. Using the data in question 764 one could say that a person with an IQ score of 122 would fall within
+ or - 2 SD of the mean
766. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. A z-score of +1 would be the same as
1 SD above the mean; z scores are the same as standard deviation
767. Z-scores (also called standard scores) are the same as standard deviations, thus a z-score of -2.5 means
2.5 SD below the mean
768. A T-score is different from a z-score. A z-score is the same as the standard deviation. A T-score, however, has a mean of 50 with every 10 points landing at a standard deviation above or below the mean. Thus a T-score of 60 would equal +1 SD while a T- score of 40 would
-1 SD
769. An IQ score on an IQ test which was three standard deviations above the mean would be
near-genius level
770. A platykurtic distribution would look approximately like
the upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the abscissa (wtf is this answer...just remember plat is flat)
A leptokurtic distribution would approximately look like
tall and thin; remember lepto leaps high
771. Test scores on an exam that fell below three standard deviations of the mean or above three standard deviations of the mean could be described as
extreme.
772. In World War II the Air Force used stanine scores as a measurement. Stanine scores divide the distribution into nine equal intervals with stanine 1 as the lowest ninth and 9 as the highest ninth. In this system 5 is the mean. Thus a Binet IQ score of 101 would fall in stanine
5; remember the average Binet score is 100
773. There are four basic measurement scales: the nominal, the ordinal, the interval, and the ratio. The nominal scale is strictly a qualitative scale. It is the simplest type of scale. It is used to distinguish logically separated groups. Which of the following illustrates the function of the nominal scale?
A DSM or ICD diagnostic category.
Parametric tests measure
interval and ratio data
Nonparametric tests measure
nominal and ordinal data
774. The ordinal scale rank-orders variables, though the relative distance between the elements is not always equal. An example of this would be
a horse categorized as a second place winner in a race
775. The interval scale has numbers scaled at equal distances but has no absolute zero point. Most tests used in school fall into this category. You can add and subtract using interval scales but cannot multiply or divide. An example of this would be that
an IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70
776. A ratio scale is an interval scale with a true zero point. Ratio measurements are possible using this scale. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division all can be utilized on a ratio scale. In terms of counseling research
most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a ratio scale.
777. Researchers often utilize naturalistic observation when doing ethological investigations or studying children's behavior. In this approach
the researcher does not manipulate or control variables
778. The simplest form of descriptive research is the _______, which requires a questionnaire return rate of _______ to be accurate.
survey; 50-75%
779. A researcher gives a depressed patient a sugar pill and the individual's depression begins to lift. This is known as
the placebo effect
780. A researcher notes that a group of clients who are not receiving counseling, but are observed in a research study, are improving. Her hypothesis is that the attention she has given them has been curative. The best explanation of their improvement would be
the Hawthorne effect
781. An elementary school counselor tells the third-grade teacher that a test revealed that certain children will excel during the school year. In reality, no such test was administered. Moreover, the children were unaware of the experiment. By the end of the year, all of the children who were supposed to excel did excel! This would best be explained via
the Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect
782. A panel of investigators discovered that a researcher who completed a major study had unconsciously rated attractive females as better counselors. This is an example of
the Halo effect.
783. All of the following describe the analysis of covariance technique except
it is a correlation coefficient
784. Three years ago an inpatient chemical dependency center in a hospital asked their clients if they would like to undergo an archaic form of therapy created by Wilhem Reich known as "vegotherapy." Approximately half of the clients stated they would like try the treatment while the other 50% stated that they would stick with the tried-and-true program of the center. Outcome data on their drinking was compiled at the end of seven weeks. Today—three years later—a statistician compared the two groups based on their drinking behavior at the end of the seven weeks using a t test. This study could best be described as
causal comparative research.
785. The WAIS-IV test is given to 100 adults picked randomly. How many of the adults most likely would receive an IQ score between 85 and 115?
68
786. A researcher creates a new motoric test in which clients throw a baseball at a target 40 feet away. Each client is given 100 throws, and the mean on the test is 50. (In other words, out of 100 throws the mean number of times the client will hit the target is 50 times.) Sam took the test and hit the target just two times out of the 100 throws allowed. Jeff, on the other hand, hit the target an amazing 92 out of 100 trials. Using the concept of statistical regression toward the mean the research would predict that
Sam's score will increase while Jeff's go down; statistical regression to the mean
787. Standardized tests always have
formal procedures for test administration and scoring.
788. There are two distinct types of developmental studies. In a cross-sectional study, clients are assessed at one point in time. In a longitudinal study, however
the same people are studied over a period of time
789. A counselor educator, Dr. Y, is doing research on his classes. He hypothesizes that if he reinforces students in his morning class by smiling each time a student asks a relevant question, then more students will ask questions and exam grades will go up. Betty and Linda accidentally overhear Dr. Y discussing the experiment with the department chairman. Betty is a real people pleaser and decides that she will ask lots of questions and try to help Dr. Y confirm his hypothesis. Linda, nevertheless, is angry that she is being experimented on and promises Betty that Dr. Y could smile until the cows came in but she still wouldn't ask a question. Both Linda and Betty exemplify
demand characteristics of experiments.
790. If an ANOVA yields a significant F value, you could rely on ______ to test significant differences between group means
Duncan's multiple-range, Tukey's, or Scheffe's test
One tailed test
when a statistical test places the rejection area at one end of the distribution; directional experimental hypothesis;
Two tailed test
When a statistical test places the rejection area at both ends of the distribution; non-directional experimental hypothesis;
summative or formative evaluation
Summative evaluation is used to assess a final product (e.g., How many high school students are not indulging alcoholic beverages after completing a yearly program focusing on drug awareness education?). Summative research attempts to ascertain how well the goal has been met. Formative process research, on the other hand, is ongoing while the program is underway (e.g., After three weeks of the proposed year-long drug awareness education program how many high school students are taking drugs?).
(791) Switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study is known as
counterbalancing
The Pygmalion effect
The experimenter falls in love with their hypothesis and becomes a self fulfilling prophecy
792. A doctoral student who begins working on his bibliography for his thesis would most likely utilize
ERIC for primary and secondary resources
Primary Resources
First hand resources; example: they wrote the book you're referencing
Secondary Resources
description of events written by people who were not there
793. In a random sample each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Selection is by chance. In a new study, however, it will be important to include 20% African Americans. What type of sampling procedure will be necessary?
Stratified sampling
Horizontal Sampling
Occurs when a researcher selects subjects from a single socioeconomic group.
snowball sampling
recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants
794. A researcher wants to run a true experiment but insists she will not use a random sample. You could safely say that
She could accomplish this using systematic sampling; taking every nth person
sampling error
Small samples do not always mimic the population
795. An operational definition
outlines a procedure
Axiom
a universal truth; an established rule
796. In a parametric test the assumption is that the scores are normally distributed. In nonparametric testing the curve is not a normal distribution. Which of these tests are no parametric statistical measures?
All of the above; Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched pairs, Solomon and the Kruskal Wallis H test
Matched designs
Subjects marched in regard to variables that could be correlated with the DV
Mann-Whitney U test
determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differ significantly when data are nonparametric
(memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated')
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
A nonparametric statistical test used to compare two paired (dependent) samples where the outcome of interest is ordinal or continuous with a skewed distribution.
Kruskal-Wallis test
The non-parametric equivalent to the one-way ANOVA.
797. A researcher studies a single session of counseling in which a counselor treats a client's phobia using a paradoxical strategy. He then writes in his research report that paradox is the treatment of choice for phobics. This is an example of
inductive logic or reasoning; goes from specific to general
Deductive logic or reasoning
Moving from generalization to the specific
798. A client goes to a string of 14 chemical dependency centers that operate on the 12-step model. When his current therapist suggests a new inpatient program the client responds with, "What for, I already know the 12 steps?" The client is using
deductive logic
799. Mike takes a math achievement test. In order to predict his score if he takes the test again the counselor must know
the standard error of measurement (SEM); tells what would most likely occur is the same individual took the same test again
800. A researcher performs a study that has excellent external or so called population validity, meaning that the results have generalizability. To collect his data the researcher gave clients a rating scale in which they were to respond with strongly agree, somewhat agree, neutral, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree. This is
a Likert scale
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