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Botany Exam 2

Terms in this set (145)

reproduction cycle is completed in one year and end with the death of the parent plant

herbaceous

Annual plants are vegetative in the ______ and reproductive in the _______

Annual plants are vegetative in the spring/wet season and reproductive in the fall

examples of annual plants

pea, corn, wheat, rice, lettuce, watermelon, beans, zinnia, marigold, crabgrass

Biennial plants

two growing seasons to complete their reproductive cycle- flowers in the second year

herbaceous or woody

When do biennial plants flower and when are they vegetative?

biennials flower in the second year and then dies: vegetative in the spring through fall of first year, triggered to flower in the winter, and reproductive spring through fall of second year

the cold treatment that induces flowering

Can we trick biennial plants into flowering before the second year?

yes, it costs more to maintain plants for two years so you can treat them with cold temperatures in the first year to trick them into flowering during the first year

exogenously applied hormone- apply hormone from outside (spray it) of the plant during the first year to induce to flower early

examples of biennial plants

beets, carrots, celery, parsley, leek

Perennial plants

Take several to many growing seasons to go from a germinated seed to a plant that produces seeds (more than two years)

does not die after reproducing; flowers repeatedly

herbaceous or woody

examples of perennials

orchids, ferns, agave, pine, banana

the annual process of dropping leaves in the winter/dry season

perennating organ (and examples?)

lives year to year (ex: rhizome, bulb)

two cotyledons, flowers in four or fives, leaves with distinct network for primary veins, vascular cambium present, vascular bundles of stem in a ring, pollen grains with three apertures

One cotyledon, flowers in threes, leaf with parallel veins, no vascular cambium, vascular bundle of stem scattered, pollen grains in one aperture

Angiosperm life cycle

adult (reproductive) --> flower --> pollination --> fertilization --> seed (embryo) --> dispersal --> germination --> establishment --> seedling --> grow --> adult

Does all pollination result in ferilization?

Why do most seeds not germinate successfully?

They must land in conducive environments during dispersal

What are the Angiosperm life stages?

adult, seed (embryo), seedling

series of modified leaves that consist of 4 series

reproductive organ in Angiosperm plant

pistil (gynoecium) and stamen (androecium)

aka gynoecium

female reproductive part of a flower

ovary, stigma, style

contains the seeds; base of pistil that produces ovules and develops into fruit

catches pollen

may consist of several arms or branches and tends to be sticky

the stalk of the pistil that supports the stigma

aka androecium

The pollen-producing male reproductive organ of a flower

anther and filament

the part of a stamen that contains the pollen (male DNA)

Supports the anther

petals (corolla) and sepals (calyx)

modified leaves which are usually bright in color to attract pollinators (function to attract pollinators)

petals are typically rich in pigments other than chlorophyll known as

function to cover and protect the flower bud before it opens

stronger/sturdier than petals

may be colorful

petals are collectively called _____ and sepals are collectively called ____

petals are collectively called corolla and sepals are collectively called calyx

calyx + corolla

base of a flower where all floral parts attach

stalk of a solitary flower or main stalk of an inflorescence

ovary consists of

ovule and ovary wall

bears egg; matures into seed

ovule consists of

micropyle, integument, nucellus, megasporocyte

protective tissue layer that bounds the outside of the ovule; matures into seed coat upon fertilization

generates egg (haploid)

nurtures egg development

ovule attachment site

Do gymnosperms have ovules? Ovaries?

Gymnosperms have ovules because they have seeds, but they don't have ovaries because they don't have flowers

embryonic stage of a flower that becomes a bud

complete flower

contains all four floral series

complete flowers=

perfect flowers

incomplete flower

lacks one or more floral series

contains both male and female reproductive/ fertile series

bisexual or hermaphroditic

imperfect flower

missing one of the floral fertile series (unisexual)

male imperfect flower

female imperfect flower

male and female unisexual flowers on the same plant

monoecious plants are

imperfect, incomplete

male and female unisexual flowers are on separate individual plants

dioecious plants are

imperfect, incomplete

a single flower containing multiple grouped or clustered flowers

floret stalk; attaches each floret to the rachis

Asteraceae (Compositae)

plant family with inflorescence

ex: sunflower

specialized leaves that help attract pollinators by resembling petals; may be designed to only allow certain types of pollinators

pollen transfer from male to female (in all spermatophytes)

in Angiosperms, from anther to stigma

in Gymnosperms, from male cone to female cone

package that carries the male DNA

found in pollen walls; strong compound that protects pollen in dangerous environments; decay resistant - fossilizes

a mass of pollen grains in an anther that are often attached to pollinating insects

(in orchids)

Coevolution allows

certain plants and animals to become well adapted to each other

pollination syndromes

unique flower traits that adapt a plant for pollination by a particular vector

outcrossing (cross-pollination)

pollination between different plants to increase genetic mixing

how can a plant ensure cross-pollination?

by being dioecious (imperfect, unisexual flowers on different plants)

self-pollination

pollination on the same plant (same or different flower) which prevents genetic mixing

prevention of self-pollination

1. separate stigma and anther
2. protandry and protogyny (sequential maturation of fertile series)
3. compatibility barriers

stamen matures first, then sceneses an pistol becomes mature

pistol (female) matures first

advantages of self-pollination (3)

1. reproduction for scattered populations, extreme or disturbed habitats, limited pollen vectors
2. saves pollen
3. increases probability that pollen reaches stigma (distance and time traveled are short)

fusion of egg and sperm to produce zygote (which will divide via mitosis to produce a multicellular embryo)

What are the 2 steps of fertilization?

1. pollen tube elongates to ovule through micropyle
2. sperm form and travel to the egg

What are the three steps of seed maturation?

1. fertilization occurs
2. unicellular zygote undergoes mitosis to produce embryo/seed
3. ovary matures into fruit (parental investment)

parts of an Angiosperm seed

endosperm, testa, embryo

nutrient-rich storage tissue (parental investment from both male and female parents)

seed coat; formed from integument of ovule

parts of Gymnosperm seed

no endosperm, but has testa and embryo

ripened ovary post-fertilization in flowering plants that encloses seeds

exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp

innermost layer of pericarp that surrounds and protects seeds

commonly called core, stone, or pit

middle layer of pericarp that covers the mesocarp

commonly called skin, rind, peel, or husk

berry with a leathery skin containing oils (ex: orange)

fruit with a thin skin and a pericarp that is soft at maturity (ex: strawberry)

nitrogen fixing plants (ex: peas or beans)

oats family; make inflorescence; dry fruits

Simple fleshy fruit

develop from flower with single pistil, ovary may be superior or inferior, may be simple (derived from one carpel) or compound (consist of two or more carpel)

Simple fleshy fruit with single seed enclosed by hard, stony endocarp (pit) (ex: coconut)

berries with thick rinds (ex: pumpkins)

accessory fruit

fruit that contains non ovarian tissue (ex: apple and strawberry)

protect the seed, aid seed in dispersal

Dehiscent fruits

dry fruits that split at maturity

indehiscent fruits

dry fruits that don't split a maturity, single seed is usually united with the pericarp

Aggregate fruit

derived from a single flower with several to many pistils, the individual pistils develop into tiny drupes or other fruitlets but they mature as a clustered unit on a single receptacle (ex: raspberries)

Multiple fruits

derived from several to many individual flowers in a single inflorescence, each flower has its own receptacle but as the flower mature separately into fruitlets they develop together into a single larger fruit (ex: pineapple)

Dispersal patterns

water, wind, attachment (animals), edible fruit, explosive dehiscence

give the seed trait for each seed dispersal method:
1. water
2. wind
3. attachment

1. seed must by buoyant
2. seed must be aerodynamic, light
3. seed must have hooks, barbs

why do some plants need their seeds to be consumed to germinate?

some seeds need acid scarification to germinate

explosive dehiscence

as fruit dries (dehiscence), it will create tension and eventually fruit explodes and projects seeds

pros and cons of seed dispersal by wind and water for the parent plant

Con: wind and water are highly arbitrary; almost no offspring will survive- parent plant must compensate by producing a lot of seeds

Pro: large dispersal distance which allows for greater genetic mixing in the population and allows the plant to overcome geographic barriers

pros and cons of dispersal by explosive dehiscence for the parent plant

not arbitrary; close-distance dispersal, so high intraspecific competition but tends to land in environment that it's well adapted to

con: lowest genetic mixing

pro: parent plants don't need to produce large number of seeds compared to wind and water

pros and cons of dispersal via animals for the parent plant

attachment and edible fruit: dispersal distance depends on animal and their movement range; arbitrariness depends on animal and relationship with that plant

flannel bush seed

advantage to disperser= elaiosome (oil body)

advantage to plant: harvested by ants, elaiosomes eaten and seed discarded, so seed germinates without parent competition

peanut (legume, not nut)

self plants a peg (developing ovary) to situate it in place by parent plant --> fruits buried --> seeds never leave parent proximity

bipartite fruit (2 parts): top half is ejected and carried by ocean currents (water dispersal), and bottom half is attached to parent plant and drops in place

mature cones open after a fire --> resin melted --> sporophylls open --> seed is released (conifer seeds are winged to propel away from parent plant)

airy/buoyant

endocarp (hard part) to protect embryo and husk is triangular to lay flat on beach before germinating

embryo emergence from seed

What factors are important in seed germination?

water (activates metabolism), scarification, oxygen, temperature, internal factors

which factors are not important for seed germination?

nutrients (because source of nutrients comes from within the seed, not the environment) and light

germination of seeds inside the fruit while still attached to the parent plant

cellular chemical transformations in an organism

breaking down organic molecules

metabolize protein, fat, organic matter

includes aerobic respiration, fermentation, and anaerobic respiration

constructing organic molecules

production of organic matter (carbohydrates): chemosynthesis and photosynthesis

3 ways to make ATP in anabolic pathways

1. photophosphorylation (light-driven)
2. oxidative phosphorylation
3. substrate-level phosphorylation

photophosphorylation

light-driven chemiosmosis (ETC) utilizing ATP synthase in photosynthesis

loss of an electron

molecule in oxidized state

can receive an electron and be reduced

ex: NO3, SO4, CO2, O2

gain of an electron

molecule in reduced state

can donate an electron to be oxidized (has proton attached)

ex: NH3, H2S, CH4, H2O

non-protein compound that assists a protein's biochemical transformations and is not consumed; assist as electron carriers in redox reactions

synthesis of organic material via CO2 reduction

ATP is made but it is used for CO2 fixation

6CO2 + 6H20 + light E --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

absorbs photosynthetically active radiation; absorbs red and blue; reflects green

accessory pigments

chlorophyll b, c, d, e, f

function to maximize light absorption

Where do light-dependent and light-independent reactions occur?

light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane and light-independent reactions occur in the stroma

light-harvesting complex (LHC)

accessory pigment collection that transfers light energy to reaction center (which consists of pigment and proteins)

light-harvesting complex + reaction center

absorb light energy and transfer energy/electrons

purpose of electron transport chain

production of ATP using potential energy of a proton gradient

particles of light

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars

ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate

phosphoglycerate

In photosystem II, a molecule that accepts excited electrons from a reaction center chlorophyll and passes them to an electron transport chain.

Reaction center cholophyll in the photosystem I.

Reaction center chlorophyll in the photosystem II.

A proton and electron carrier in the electron transport chain during the light reactions of photosynthesis, 2nd

iron protein that is the 3rd transport molecule in the ETC

Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP

phosphoglyceraldehyde

RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase

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