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COM 288 Final

Terms in this set (173)

When we come to "know" or believe things to be true because we've been told or taught by others to believe them early on in life, this is an example of:
Traditions, customs, and faith
Some problems with everyday ways of knowing include:
Accuracy, overgeneralization, and cognitive conservatism
The assumption that something is true because it has always been true relates to:
Tenacity
The study of knowledge is called _______ .
Epistemology
What do Communication researchers mostly study?
Messages
Quantitative research:
Relies on a deductive model.

Embraces a postpositivist paradigm.

Studies numerical data.

All of these are correct.
is concerned with questions of reality, free will, and determinism.
Ontology
Theory about theory is known as:
Metatheory
Which type of research is meant for public consumption and can be found in peer-reviewed journal articles?
Scholarly Research
If you believe that the world exists out there and is tangible, you are taking this type of stance:
Realist
According to the lecture, a well-written research objective should:
Lead to the research hypotheses.

All of these.

Identify the gap in research.

Be narrow and specific.
In this example what is the dependent variable: There is a difference between COMM majors and non-COMM majors with respect to amount of communication apprehension.
Communication Apprehension
Which type of definition refers to how we plan to measure and/or observe a concept or variable?
You Answered
Operational Definition
Which type of hypothesis is this example: COMM majors self-disclose more often than non-COMM majors.
One-Tailed (Directional) Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is always contrasted with a
Null hypothesis
Which type of definition refers to how we plan to measure and/or observe a concept or variable?
Operational Definition
According to the lecture, in which section of a quantitative journal article can you find the author's "suggestions for future research?"
Discussion section
Which type of hypothesis is this example: There is no relationship between a person's age and their amount of self-disclosure in their relationships.
Null Hypothesis
Which type of hypothesis is this example: COMM majors self-disclose more often than non-COMM majors.
One-Tailed (Directional) Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is always contrasted with a _________________.
Null hypothesis
A(n) _________________ variable is predicted to cause or determine the value in another variable.
Independent
A researcher finds that crime rates and ice cream consumption in a city are not directly related, but instead are both influenced by a third variable - the temperature outside. This third variable - the temperature - is what kind of variable?
Confounding variable
This level of measurment has categories that are ranked in order, but does not indicate how much the difference is between each category.
Ordinal
A(n) _________________ variable is caused or determined by another variable.
Dependent
When participants change their behavior because they know they are being observed, this is known as the
Hawthorne Effect
Which of these is an example of a Likert Scale measurement?
Strongly Agree - Agree - Neutral - Disagree - Strongly Disagree
Which kind of definition describes the observable and measurable characteristics of a concept?
Operational Definition
0 / 2 pts
This level of measurment has categories that are ranked in order, but does not indicate how much the difference is between each category.
Ordinal
How closely an operational definition matches a conceptual definition refers to its:
Conceptual Fit
When participants change their behavior because they know they are being observed, this is known as the
Hawthorne Effect
A(n) _________________ variable is predicted to cause or determine the value in another variable.
Independent
A researcher finds that crime rates and ice cream consumption in a city are not directly related, but instead are both influenced by a third variable - the temperature outside. This third variable - the temperature - is what kind of variable?
Confounding variable
This level of measurement has categories that are ranked in order, but does not indicate how much the difference is between each category.
Ordinal
A(n) _________________ variable is caused or determined by another variable.
Dependent
When participants change their behavior because they know they are being observed, this is known as the
Hawthorne Effect
Which of these is an example of a Likert Scale measurement?
Strongly Agree - Agree - Neutral - Disagree - Strongly Disagree
Which kind of definition describes the observable and measurable characteristics of a concept?
Operational Definition
This level of measurment has categories that are ranked in order, but does not indicate how much the difference is between each category.
Ordinal
How closely an operational definition matches a conceptual definition refers to its:
Conceptual Fit
When participants change their behavior because they know they are being observed, this is known as the
Hawthorne Effect
When research participants are treated as capable of making their own decisions, as long as they are given sufficient information, researchers are demonstrating
Respect for Persons
In qualitative research, participants are given access and the opportunity to agree or disagree with the research findings. This is called .
Member checks
As part of the informed consent process, a researcher must:
All of these are correct.

Disclose all relevant information to potential participants

Disclose any risks, benefits, or uncertainties of the study

Explain how the participants can withdraw from the study at any time
Which of the following could be considered a vulnerable population?
All of these are correct.

Children/minors

College students

Persons with cognitive disabilities
is when no one, including the researcher, can connect a participant's responses with their identity.
Anonymity
What organizations act as gatekeepers and oversee the research conducted at most universities?
Institutional Review Boards (IRB)
In qualitative research, participants are given access and the opportunity to agree or disagree with the research findings. This is called .
Member checks
When research participants are treated as capable of making their own decisions, as long as they are given sufficient information, researchers are demonstrating
Respect for Persons
Which of the following could be considered a vulnerable population?
All of these are correct.

Children/minors

College students

Persons with cognitive disabilities
is when no one, including the researcher, can connect a participant's responses with their identity.
Anonymity
_________________ is the probability your research will identify a statistical effect when it occurs.
Statistical power
When researchers ensure that their findings will represent and apply to other people and situations, they are attempting to increase the study's .
Generalizability
Imagine you want to know the opinions of all undergraduate Communication majors in the state of California about their experiences taking COMM courses. Which of the following is the best example of the sampling frame for this study?
The Communication Departments at three local Community Colleges in Los Angeles County who were contacted to participate in the study.
Generally, when increases, the overall confidence in the sample also increases.
All of these.

sat power

sample size

response rate
Picking every nth name from a list of potential participants is an example of which type of sampling method?
Systematic Sampling
Imagine you want to know the opinions of all undergraduate Communication majors in the state of California about their experiences taking COMM courses. Which of the following is the best example of the sampling frame for this study?
The Communication Departments at three local Community Colleges in Los Angeles County who were contacted to participate in the study.
Let's say a researcher first identifies subcategories of a population (e.g., grade level at a high school), then randomly selects a sample from each of these subcategories (each grade level). This sampling method is called a:
Stratified sample
Picking every nth name from a list of potential participants is an example of which type of sampling method?
Systematic Sampling
Which of the following is a type of random sampling?
Cluster Sampling
_________________ is the probability your research will identify a statistical effect when it occurs.
Statistical power
Which of the following is the best example of a trend study?
Every month for one year, different samples of people are selected and asked about their opinion of Governor Gavin Newsom.
You fill out a survey that begins with multiple choice questions, then ends with short answer questions in your own words. This type of survey is a(n) format.
Inverted funnel
A _________________ survey describes the characteristics of a sample representing a population at one point in time.
Cross-sectional
When a survey begins with broad, open-ended questions and ends with specific, narrow questions, this is known as a format.
funnel
Which type of question is best when it is important for the participant to answer in their own words?
open-ended questions
You fill out a survey that begins with multiple choice questions, the end end with short answer questions in your own words. This type of survey is a --- format
inverted funne;
Which of the following is the best example of a trend study?
every month for one year, different samples of people are selected and asked about their opinion of governor gavin newsom
Which of the following is the best example of a panel study?
every week for six months, the same sample of people are asked about their opinion of their cell phone service.
Which type of question is best when it is important for the participant to answer in their own words?
open-ended questions
When a survey begins with broad, open-ended questions and ends with specific, narrow questions, this is known as a format.
funnel
Which of the following is the best example of a trend study?
Every month for one year, different samples of people are selected and asked about their opinion of governor gavin newsom
You fill out a survey that begins with multiple choice questions, then ends with short answer questions in your own words. This type of survey is a(n) format.
inverted funnel
A _________________ survey describes the characteristics of a sample representing a population at one point in time.
cross-sectional
When a survey begins with broad, open-ended questions and ends with specific, narrow questions, this is known as a format.
funnel
Which type of question is best when it is important for the participant to answer in their own words?
open-ended questions
_________________ units are the types of content or contextual features that may appear in an individual recording unit.
Context
Which type of content structure is mostly associated with content analysis (it is NOT generally associated with interaction analysis)?
distributional structure
As a methodology, __________ _______ allow researchers to quantify and count something about a textual message.
Content analyses
The best way for researchers to increase intercoder reliability is
have coder training sessions.
Which type of content refers to characteristics of the content itself, when researchers look on the surface of the content by counting something?
Manifest Content
Which type of content refers to characteristics of the content itself, when researchers look on the surface of the content by counting something?
Manifest Content
As a methodology, __________ _______ allow researchers to quantify and count something about a textual message.
content analyses
The greatest benefit or strength of the content analysis method is:
The method is relatively unobtrusive.
In content analysis, ____________ _____ is the process of deciding exactly what it is that should be observed.
unitizing
Quantitative content analysis is particularly useful for analyzing which communication context?
Mass Media
_________________ units are the types of content or contextual features that may appear in an individual recording unit.
context
Which type of content structure is mostly associated with content analysis (it is NOT generally associated with interaction analysis)?
Distributional Structure
As a methodology, __________ _______ allow researchers to quantify and count something about a textual message.
content analyses
The best way for researchers to increase intercoder reliability is
have coder training sessions.
Which type of content refers to characteristics of the content itself, when researchers look on the surface of the content by counting something?
Manifest Content
You want to test the effectiveness of an anti-smoking public service announcement. You develop two types of PSAs (Public Service Announcements): one that uses a fear appeal to attempt to scare people into compliance and one that does not. You then show the fear ad to one group of people and the non-fear ad to another group. In this instance, the type of ad that is being shown is the:
independent variable
For the experimental notation system, the symbol "X" refers to:
induction
When researchers create experiments that involve multiple independent variables, they have created a design experiment.
factorial
You want to test the effectiveness of an anti-smoking public service announcement. You develop two types of PSAs (Public Service Announcements): one that uses a fear appeal to attempt to scare people into compliance and one that does not. You then show the fear ad to one group of people and the non-fear ad to another group. At the end of the experiment you ask participants how effective the ad is. In this example, because you show the ad to two different groups of people this is a:
Between-Subjects Design
For the experimental notation system, the symbol "O" refers to:
dependent variable
You want to test the effectiveness of an anti-smoking public service announcement. You develop two types of PSAs (Public Service Announcements): one that uses a fear appeal to attempt to scare people into compliance and one that does not. You then show the fear ad to one group of people and the non-fear ad to another group. At the end of the experiment you ask participants how effective the ad is. In this example, when you ask participants how effective the ad is this is the:
posttest
You want to test the effectiveness of an anti-smoking public service announcement. You develop two types of PSAs (Public Service Announcements): one that uses a fear appeal to attempt to scare people into compliance and one that does not. You then show the fear ad to one group of people and the non-fear ad to another group. At the end of the experiment you ask participants how effective the ad is. In this example, because you show the ad to two different groups of people this is a:
between-subjects design
When researchers create experiments that involve multiple independent variables, they have created a design experiment.
Factorial
For the experimental notation system, the symbol "X" refers to:
Induction
Which type of experimental design is the only one that uses random assignment?
True Experimental Designs
You have a data set of Midterm Exam scores. If the distribution of scores is then more students had a higher score than the average Midterm score.
negatively skewed
The following data set of scores: 7, 9, 10, 1, 4, 5, 3, 7, 8, 9, has what type of mode?
bi-modal (two modes)
This measure of central tendency is the arithmetic average of a data set.
Mean
This measure of central tendency is most appropriate for nominal data, and indicates the most frequently occurring value in a data set.
mode
Which combination of a measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion is the most appropriate for analyzing ratio/interval data?
Mean and Standard Deviation
If you want to know the average score in a data set but you know there are outliers, then which measure of central tendency is most appropriate to control for known outliers in a data set?
median
You have a data set of Midterm Exam scores. If the distribution of scores is then more students had a higher score than the average Midterm score.
negatively skewed
The following data set of scores: 7, 9, 10, 1, 4, 5, 3, 7, 8, 9, has what type of mode?
bi-modal
mThis measure of central tendency is most appropriate for nominal data, and indicates the most frequently occurring value in a data set.
mode
Which combination of a measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion is the most appropriate for analyzing ratio/interval data?
mean and standard deviation
A researcher would use a(n) statistic to test for differences in frequencies when both the independent and dependent variables are nominal.
chi-square
When researchers conduct significance testing in order to determine the probability of there being a "true" difference or relationship, they test the hypothesis.
null
A researcher would use a(n) statistic to test for differences between three or more groups when the independent variable is nominal and the dependent variable is continuous.
analysis of variance
A researcher would use a(n) statistic to test for linear relationships between two groups when both the independent and dependent variables are continuous.
correlation
statistics are used to gather information about a population based on a sample.
inferential
axiology
the study of values and morals
nominalist
view which denies the existence of universals and abstract objects but affirms the existence of general abstract terms and predicates

nominalist paradigm is concerned with building theories; takes an inductive approach
realist position
The world is real, tangible, and measurable

realist paradigm: concerned with testing theories; deductive
inductive
aims at developing a theory

the observations and theories are proposed towards the end of the research process as a result of observations, patterns, resemblances, regularities in experience
deductive
aims at testing an existing theory.

starts with a general idea and reaches a specific conclusion
quantitive research
concerned with testing theories; deductive

-epistemology: one truth
-ontology: reality is orderly; cause/effect
-axiology: attempts to separate values

(experiment, survey, content analysis, scientific, objective, positivist.
A Priori
This form of reasoning is based on hunches and observations that have been accumulated over time; it intuitively makes sense that something is true.
Applied Research
Research that takes the theoretical lessons learned in academic studies and applies them to varying real life contexts.
Authority
The reliance upon someone in a position of power to determine what is factual. This power may be derived from a variety of places, such as expertise, political power, religious authority, or interpersonal trust.
Cognitive Conservatism
The idea that how someone views the world is often based upon his or her prior beliefs.
Communication Researchers
Scholars and professionals who study communication.
Critical or Cultural Research
Research that looks at the construction, use, and abuse of power and control in a culture, situation, organization, or community.
Epistemology
The study of knowledge.
Experience
A common way of understanding the social world.
Health Communication
Communication scholars who look at the interpersonal exchanges between doctors and patients, public health campaigns, the flow of information in public health organizations, and so on.
Humanities Research
Research that uses performative or artistic elements to look at how we co-construct meaning through communication.
Hypotheses
Educated guesses about a social phenomenon based on prior observations.
Interpersonal Communication
The study of compliance gaining and social influence; persuading people to adopt certain attitudes or behaviors.
Intuition
Intuition is an internal-based instinct that people have about a situation, issue, or experience.
Media Research
This type of research uses surveys, laboratory experiments, and content analysis to answer questions about the uses of and responses to mediated information, and can be useful in understanding how humans convey meaning.
Organizational Communication
This field of communication studies the ways in which people exchange information to accomplish goals. The exchange of information in organizational contexts can take on a variety of different forms, including relationships between managers and subordinates, relationships with constituents outside the organization, different ways that organizations deal with crises and emergencies, and so on.
Overgeneralization
A problematic way of knowing in which individuals base their knowledge on just a few experiences or observations.
Research
The activity of conducting intellectual investigations into the observable world.
Scholarly Research
Primary research conducted by academic researchers, and distributed through academic publications with the desire to build theory.
Scientific Reasoning
A way of knowing where one has a hunch about how things ought to be, then tests that hunch by making observations.
Social Research
This research focuses less on the observable world in which human beings interact, and more on the interactions themselves, how they come into existence, how they function, and how they affect the human experience. Research in communication, psychology, sociology, economics, political science, and anthropology are typically classified as social research.
Tenacity
The assumption that something is true because it has always been said to be true.
Theory
A set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.
Qualitative Research
-concerned w/building theories
-inductive
-epistemology: multiple realities possible
-ontology: reality is subjective; free will
-axiology: embraces everyone's values
(rhetorical, critical, hermeneutics, ethnography, social constructionist, naturalistic, humanistic, interpretivist)
ways of knowing vs. scientific reasoning
ways of knowing:
1. experience
2. tenacity
3. authority
4. traditions customs faith
5. magic superstition
6. intuition hunches and a priori
Problems:
cognitive conservatism: personal bias
overgeneralization: assume few apply toall

scientific reasoning:
-the scientific method
1. ask q
2. form hypothesis
3. design/conduct study
4. analyze results
5. generate new qs based on results
-testing hunches
examples of communication research
-research studies ppl exchanging messages through channels within one or more contexts

research area:
-com policy and law
-fam com
-group com
-health com
-instructional com
-intercultural
-intrapersonal
-language talk
-legal
-media
-nonverbal
-organizational
-persuasion
-public
-social media
primary research
research done firsthand for the first time
secondary research
past research which has already been performed and often already published
How to read a journal article
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Conclusion
4. Literature Review
5. Method
6. Discussion
7. Findings
8. Limitations
9. References
how do research objectives lead to hypotheses
they should be:
1.narrow specific
2. identify wut research missed
3. lead to research hypotheses

how to write:
1. general topic
2. topic in specific context
3. isolate variables that r related
nondirectional - two tailed hypotheshis
predicts the independent variable will effect the dependent variable,direction of effect not specified
conceptual fit
1. an evaluation of the measurement
2. do the conceptual and operational definitions match up
nominal
(adj.) existing in name only, not real; too small to be considered or taken seriously
ordinal
attributes can be ordered, natural ordered categories distances between them not known

ordinal scales:

1. variables rank ordered
2. distances between points not equal
3. olympic medals
ratio levels of measurement
measurement of a variable in which the numbers indicating the variables values represent fixed measuring units and absolute zero points

Ex: age, height, weight, GPA, income, ect.
semantic differential scales
1. 7 point scale w/ bipolar adjectives
2. participants respond to prompt rating something
3. switch positive, negative polarity
4. interval level measurement
cofounding variables
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

(3rd variable)
random sampling
...
nonrandom sampling
sample that is not generalizable to the population; sample that is not a random sample

convenience: participants easily accessible to researcher

volunteer:
researcher recruits participants

snowball:
participants recruit more participants

network: using social networks to find participants
response rate
the percentage of people contacted who complete the questionnaire
sample size
relates to statistical power, increasing it will:

-decrease margin of error
-decrease confidence interval
-increase confidence level

determine by:

-size pop
-acceptable margin of error
-acceptable confidence level
confidence levels

margin of error
confidence levels: the probability that your sample is correct expressed as a percentage (99% 95%)

margin of error: how different the sample is from population, also called sampling error
ex: .03, .05, .10
longitudinal survey designs
occur over a period of time

trend, panel, cohort studies
arrangement of questions
...
survey
-survey uses questionnaires or interviews to discover descriptive characteristics of a topic

-measures attitudes,beliefs, perceptions

-occurs at once (cross-sectional)

-occurs over period of time (longitudinal)
Survey Administration
1. researcher-administered: interviews (telephone in person)

2. self administered: online (email, links, surveymonkey, males)
-low response rates

3. increase response rate by monetary goods/incentives

4. make survey easy

5. explain how answers will b used
nonmaleficence and beneficence
benefit the participants and does no harm
anonymity and confidentiality
both protect privacy
anonymity- no data that allows researchers to match the data with the person
confidentiality- the source of any data will not be revealed
Which combination of a measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion is the most appropriate for analyzing ratio/interval data?
Mean and Standard Deviation
This measure of central tendency is most appropriate for nominal data, and indicates the most frequently occurring value in a data set.
Mode
This measure of central tendency is the arithmetic average of a data set.
Mean
If you want to know the average score in a data set but you know there are outliers, then which measure of central tendency is most appropriate to control for known outliers in a data set?
Median
This measure of dispersion would tell you the difference between the highest and lowest score on a Midterm exam.
Range
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