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These flashcard sets follow along with MYERS' PSYCHOLOGY FOR AP, 2nd Edition, textbook by David G. Myers. This is Unit 12 (Modules 65-69) and is "Abnormal Behavior."
Terms in this set (628)
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions).posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.posttraumatic growthpositive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.mood disorderspsychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.major depressive disordera mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with fi ve or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.maniaa mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.bipolar disordera mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the over-excited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)ruminationcompulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes.schizophreniaa psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotional expression.psychosisa psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.delusionsfalse beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.hallucinationfalse sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.somatic symptom disordera psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause. (See conversion disorder and illness anxiety disorder.)conversion disordera disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. (Also called functional neurological symptom disorder.)illness anxiety disordera disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease. (Formerly called hypochondriasis.)dissociative disordersdisorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.dissociative identity disorder (DID)a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.anorexia nervosaan eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintain a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight.bulimia nervosaan eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomit ing or laxative use) or fasting.binge-eating disordersignificant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa.personality disorderspsychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.antisocial personality disordera personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.social psychologythe scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.attribution theorythe theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.fundamental attribution errorthe tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.attitudefeelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.peripheral route persuasionoccurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.central route persuasionoccurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.foot-in-the-door phenomenonthe tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.rolea set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.cognitive dissonance theorythe theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.conformityadjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.normative social influenceinfluence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.informational social influenceinfluence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.social facilitationimproved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.social loafingthe tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.deindividuationthe loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (group polarizationthe enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.groupthinkthe mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.culturethe enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.norman understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.prejudicean unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.stereotypea generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.discrimination(2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.just-world phenomenonthe tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.ingroup"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.outgroup"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.ingroup biasthe tendency to favor our own group.scapegoat theorythe theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.other-race effectthe tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. (Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.)aggressionany physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.frustration-aggression principlethe principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression.social scriptculturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.mere exposure effectthe phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.passionate lovean aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.companionate lovethe deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.equitya condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.self-disclosurerevealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.altruismunselfish regard for the welfare of others.bystander effectthe tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.social exchange theorythe theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.reciprocity norman expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.social-responsibility norman expectation that people will help those needing their help.conflicta perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.social trapa situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.mirror-image perceptionsmutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.self-fulfilling prophecya belief that leads to its own fulfillment.superordinate goalsshared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.GRIT Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reductiona strategy designed to decrease international tensions.consciousnessour awareness of ourselves and our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 118, 219)hypnosisa social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person's (the hypnotist's) suggestion that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 219)posthypnotic suggestiona suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 220)dissociationa split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 222)circadian rhythmthe biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 226)REM sleeprapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 226)alpha wavesthe relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 227)sleepperiodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 227)hallucinationsfalse sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 228, 685)delta wavesthe large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 228)NREM sleepnonrapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 228)suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 229)insomniarecurring problems in falling or staying asleep. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 238)narcolepsya sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 238)sleep apneaa sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 239)night terrorsa sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 239)dreama sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 240)manifest contentaccording to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 241)latent contentaccording to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 241)REM reboundthe tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 243)substance use disordercontinued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 246)psychoactive druga chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 246)tolerancethe diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 246)addictioncompulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 247)withdrawalthe discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 247)depressantsdrugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 248)alcohol use disorder(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 249)barbituratesdrugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)opiatesopium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)stimulantsdrugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)amphetaminesdrugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)nicotinea stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 250)cocainea powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 252)methamphetaminea powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 253)Ecstasy (MDMA)a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 253)hallucinogenspsychedelic ("mind -manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 254, 439, 856)LSDa powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 254)near-death experiencean altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 255)THCthe major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 255)hindsight biasthe tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 031)critical thinkingthinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 035)theoryan explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)hypothesisa testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)operational definitiona carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)replicationrepeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)case studya descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)naturalistic observationobserving and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)surveya technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 042)sampling biasa flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)populationall those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)random samplea sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)correlationa measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)correlation coefficienta statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)scatterplota graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)illusory correlationthe perception of a relationship where none exists. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 050)experimenta research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)experimental groupin an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)control groupin an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)random assignmentassigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)double-blind procedurean experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)independent variablethe experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)confounding variablea factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)dependent variablethe outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)validitythe extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 053, 622)descriptive statisticsnumerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)histograma bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)modethe most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)meanthe arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)medianthe middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)skewed distributiona representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)rangethe difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)standard deviationa computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)normal curve (normal distribution)a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 059, 621)inferential statisticsnumerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)statistical significancea statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)culturethe enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 065, 776)informed consentan ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)debriefingthe postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)placebo effectexperimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)psychotherapytreatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.biomedical therapyprescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology.eclectic approachan approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.psychoanalysisSigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.resistancein psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.interpretationin psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.transferencein psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).psychodynamic therapytherapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight.insight therapiesa variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses.client-centered therapya humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.)active listeningempathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.unconditional positive regarda caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.behavior therapytherapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.counterconditioningbehavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.exposure therapiesbehavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid.systematic desensitizationa type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.virtual reality exposure therapyan anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.aversive conditioninga type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).token economyan operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.cognitive therapytherapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).group therapytherapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction.family therapytherapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.regression toward the meanthe tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.meta-analysisa procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.evidence-based practiceclinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences.therapeutic alliancea bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem.resiliencethe personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma.psychopharmacologythe study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.antipsychotic drugsdrugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder.antianxiety drugsdrugs used to control anxiety and agitation.antidepressant drugsdrugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors—SSRIs.)electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.psychosurgerysurgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.lobotomya psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.intelligencemental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.intelligence testa method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.general intelligence (g )a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.factor analysisa statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.savant syndromea condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.gritpassion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goalsemotional intelligencethe ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.mental agea measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.Stanford-Binetthe widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.intelligence quotient (IQ)defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative performance above or below average.achievement testa test designed to assess what a person has learned.aptitude testa test designed to predict a person's future performance; ______ is the capacity to learn.Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.standardizationdefining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.normal curvea symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.reliabilitythe extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.validitythe extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.)content validitythe extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.predictive validitythe success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.)cohorta group of people from a given time period.crystallized intelligenceour accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.fluid intelligenceour ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.intellectual disabilitya condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life. (Formerly referred to as mental retardation.)Down syndromea condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.heritabilitythe proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The ________ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.stereotype threata self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.Deviation IQ Scoresscores that locate subjects precisely within the normal distribution, using the standard deviation as the unit of measurement.Convergent ThinkingNarrowing down a list of alternatives to converge on a single correct answer.test-retest reliabilityA type of reliability estimated by comparing subjects' scores on two administrations of a test.reaction rangegenetically determined limits on IQ or other traitsPsychological testA standardized measure of a sample of a person's behavior.Personality TestsPsychological tests that measure various aspects of personality, including motives, interests, values, and attitudes.divergent thinkingTrying to expand the rang of alternatives by generating many possible solutions.Eugenicsefforts to control reproduction to gradually improve hereditary characteristics in a populationtest normsstandards that provide information about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on a test.creativitythe ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable.criterionan independent measure on what the test aims to assessMotivationa need or desire that energizes and drives behaviorInstincta complex, unlearned behavior, that is rigidly patterned throughout a speciesDrivereduction theory- the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the needHomeostasisa tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistryIncentivea positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviorYerkes-Dodson law-the principle that performance increases with arousal up to a point, beyond which performance decreasesHierarchy of needsMaslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base of the pyramid with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become activeGlucosethe form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for our bodySet pointthe point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly setBasal metabolic ratethe body's resting rate of energy expenditureRefractory perioda resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasmSexual dysfunctiona problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioningEstrogenssex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.Testosteronethe most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty. Emotion- a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physical arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experienceJames Lange theorythe theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness to our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuliCannon-Bard theorythe theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotionTwo factor theorythe Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must be (1) physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousalPolygrapha machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.Facial feedback effectthe tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happinessHealth psychologya subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicineStressthe process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challengingGeneral adaptation system (GAS)Selye's concept of the body's response to stress in three phases, alarm, resistance, and exhaustionTendand-befriend responseunder stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)Psychophysiological illnessliterally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headachesPsychoneuroimmunologythe study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting healthLymphocytesthe two types of white blood cells that are a part of the body's immune systemB lymphocytesform in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infectionsT lymphocytesform in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substancesCoronary heart diseasethe clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading type of death in developed countriesType AFriedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger prone peopleType BFriedman and Rosenman's term for easy going, relaxed peopleSexual response cyclethe four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson-- excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolutionLearninga relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experienceHabituationan organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to itAssociative Learninglearning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning)Classical Conditioninga type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate eventsBehaviorismthe view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)Unconditioned Response (UR)the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) (classical conditioning)Unconditioned Stimulus (US)a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response (classical conditioning)Conditioned Response (CR)the learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned stimulus (CS) (classical conditioning)Conditioned Stimulus (CS)an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (classical conditioning)Acquisitionthe initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and a US so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the CR (classical conditioning) or the strengthening of a reinforced response (operant conditioning)Higher-Order Conditioningalso called Second-Order Conditioning; a procedure in which the CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) CSExtinctionthe diminishing of a CR; when a US does not follow a CS (classical conditioning) or when a response is no longer reinforced (operant conditioning)Spontaneous Recoverythe reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CRGeneralizationthe tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responseDiscriminationthe learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal a US (classical conditioning)Learned Helplessnessthe hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive eventsRespondent Behaviorbehavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulusOperant Conditioninga type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisherOperant Behaviorbehavior that operates on the environment, producing consequencesLaw of EffectEdward L. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likelyOperant Chamberalso known as Skinner's Box; a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer (operant conditioning); attached devices record the animal's rate o bar pressing or key peckingShapinga procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior (operant conditioning)Discriminative Stimulusa stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (operant conditioning)Reinforcerany event that strengthens the behavior it follows (operant conditioning)Positive Reinforcementincreasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli (administer a desirable stimulus); a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the responseNegative Reinforcementincreasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (withdrawing a desirable stimulus); a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the responsePrimary Reinforceran innately reinforcing stimulus (i.e. one that satisfies a biological need)Conditioned Reinforceralso called Secondary Reinforcer; a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcerContinuous Reinforcementreinforcing the desired responses every time it occursPartial (Intermittent) Reinforcementreinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continuous reinforcementFixed-Ratio Schedulea reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (operant conditioning)Variable-Ratio Schedulea reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (operant conditioning)Fixed-Interval Schedulea reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (operant conditioning)Variable-Interval Schedulea reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (operant conditioning)Punishmentan event that decreases the behavior that it followsPositive Punishmentadminister an averse response (i.e. give a parking ticket)Negative Punishmentwithdraw a desirable stimulus (i.e. revoking a driver's license)Cognitive Mapa mental representation of the layout of one's environmentLatent Learninglearning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate itInsighta sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problemIntrinsic Motivationa desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sakeExtrinsic Motivationa desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishmentBiofeedbacka system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state (i.e. blood pressure or muscle tension)Observational Learningalso called Social Learning; learning by observing othersModelingthe process of observing and imitating a specific behaviorMirror Neuronsfrontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathyProsocial Behaviorpositive, constructive, helpful behavior; the opposite of antisocial behaviorbiological psychologythe scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)neurona nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)dendritesa neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)axonthe neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)myelin sheatha fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)action potentiala neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)refractory period(1) a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 079)thresholdthe level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)all-or-none responsea neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)synapsethe junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)neurotransmitterschemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)reuptakea neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)endorphins"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)agonista molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)antagonista molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 083, 342)nervous systemthe body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)central nervous system (CNS)the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)peripheral nervous system (PNS)the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)nervesbundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)sensory (afferent) neuronsneurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)motor (efferent) neuronsneurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)interneuronsneurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)somatic nervous systemthe division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. (Also called the skeletal nervous system.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)autonomic nervous system (ANS)the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)sympathetic nervous systemthe division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)parasympathetic nervous systemthe division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)reflexa simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 089)endocrine systemthe body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)hormoneschemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)adrenal glandsa pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 091)pituitary glandthe endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 091)lesiontissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 094)electroencephalogram (EEG)an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)CT (computed tomography)scan a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)PET (positron emission tomography)scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer -generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)fMRI (functional MRI)a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 096)brainstemthe oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097 )medullathe base of the brainstem; controls heart-beat and breathing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)thalamusthe brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)reticular formationa nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)cerebellumthe "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)limbic systemneural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)amygdalatwo lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)hypothalamusa neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)cerebral cortexthe intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 104)glial cells (glia)cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 104)frontal lobesportion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)parietal lobesportion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)occipital lobesportion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)temporal lobesportion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)motor cortexan area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)somatosensory cortexarea at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 107)association areasareas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 109)plasticitythe brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 111)neurogenesisthe formation of new neurons. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 112)corpus callosumthe large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 114)split braina condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 114)consciousnessour awareness of ourselves and our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 118, 219)cognitive neurosciencethe interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 7, 119)dual processingthe principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 120)behavior geneticsthe study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)environmentevery external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)chromosomesthreadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)genesthe biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)genomethe complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)identical twins (monozygotic twins)twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 125)fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 125)molecular geneticsthe subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 129)heritabilitythe proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 129, 632)interactionthe interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 131)epigeneticsthe study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 131)evolutionary psychologythe study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 12, 135)natural selectionthe principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 10, 135)mutationa random error in gene replication that leads to a change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 136)perceptionthe mental process of sorting, identifying, and arranging raw sensory data into meaningful patternssensationthe raw data of experience; sensory stimulation; example are eyes only register light energy and ears only register wave energybottom-up processingStarts with basic sensory information; transductiontop-down processingConstructing perceptions based on our experiences and expectationsselective attentionThe focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, like the cocktail effect (notice your name in a crowd)inattentional blindnessfailing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewherechange blindnessfailing to notice changes in the environmenttransductionConversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.psychophysicsThe study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.absolute thresholdminimal amount of energy required to produce any sensation, 50 percent of the timesignal detection theoryStates that circumstances, experiences, expectations affect our thresholdsSubliminalbelow one's absolute threshold for conscious awarenessprimingthe activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or responsedifference thresholdJust Noticeable Difference (JND); the smallest change in stimulation that you can detect 50% of the time; differs from one person to the other (and from moment to moment); tells us the flexibility of sensory systemsWeber's lawthe principle that accounts for how one notices the difference threshold for any change must be proportionalsensory adaptationdiminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulationPerceptual setA mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not anotherExtrasensory perception (ESP)Controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognitionwavelengththe distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmissionhuecolor, or aspects of colorsIntensityThe amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.pupilsmall opening in the center of the irisretinathe light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual informationIristhe color part of the eye; made of muscle that contracts/relaxes to control the size of the people allowing light to enter the eyeAccommodationProcess by which the eye lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retinarodsvisual receptor cell; located in retina; respond to varying degrees of light and dark; responsible for night vision and peripheral visionconesvisual receptor cells; located in retina; works best in bright light; responsible for viewing color; greatest density in the foveablind spotplace on the retina out where the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptors (rods/cones) are located herefoveaThe central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.feature detectorsnerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.parallel processingThe processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theorytheory of color vision based on additive color mixing; suggest that the retina contains three types of color receptors, cones: red, green, blueopponent process theoryThe theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green Christmas, yellow-blue Michigan, white-black) enable color vision.binocular cuesvisual messages/cues that require two eyes (retinal disparity, convergence)blind spotplace on the retina out where the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptors (rods/cones) are located herecochleasnail-shaped structure in the inner ear; contains fluid that vibrate; attach the oval window and basilar membraneconvergencebinoculars cue; visual depth cue; muscles controlling eye movement as the eyes turned inward to view a nearby stimuluskinesthesissense of muscle movement, posture, and strain on muscles/joints; provides information on speed and direction of movement; works with vestibular sensehabituationdecreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooneroptic nervebundle of axons from ganglion cells that carries messages from the eye to the brainmonocular cuesdepth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.pitchauditory experience corresponding to the frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower toneplace theorybrain determines pitch by the place on the basilar membrane, works best for high pitchretinal disparitybinocular distance cue; based on the overlay of two retinal fields when both eyes focus on one objectperceptual accommodationin perception, the ability to adjust to an idea or mind setsize constancythe perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed; example someone heightaudtitionThe sense of hearing.frequencyThe number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).middle earThe chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (Hammer, Anvil, and Stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations (conduction) of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.conduction hearing lossHearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.sensorineural hearing lossHearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.cochlear implanta device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve by electrodes threaded into the cochleacochleaA coiled, bony, fluid-filled tude in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.inner earThe innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.Place theoryIn hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.Frequency theoryIn hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.basilar membraneA membrane inside the cochlea which vibrates in response to sound and whose vibrations lead to activity in the auditory pathways.vestibular senseThe sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.olfaction sensesense of smelltaste budsgroups of cells located on the tongue that enable one to recognize different tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salt)Gate-control theoryThe spinal cord contains a "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. It's opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in large fibers or information coming from the brain.Sensory interactionThe principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.perceptual consistancyperceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.David Hubel - Torsten Wieseldiscovered feature detector groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual imagesHerman von HelmholtzTheorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception.Depth perceptionAbility to see objects in three dimension although the image that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distanceVisual cliffLaboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animalsPhi phenomenonIllusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick successionColor constancyPerceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave-lengths reflected by the objectPerceptual adaptationIn vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual fieldParapsychologyStudy of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesisAccommodationProcess by which the eye lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retinaempiricismthe view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 003)structuralismearly school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)functionalismearly school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)experimental psychologythe study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 005)behaviorismthe view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 006, 266)humanistic psychologya historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 006)cognitive neurosciencethe interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 007, 119)psychologythe science of behavior and mental processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 007)nature-nurture issuethe longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 009)natural selectionthe principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 010, 135)levels of analysisthe differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)biopsychosocial approachan integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)behavioral psychologythe scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)biological psychologythe scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)cognitive psychologythe scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)evolutionary psychologythe study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 135)psychodynamic psychologya branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)social-cultural psychologythe study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)psychometricsthe scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 013)basic researchpure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)developmental psychologya branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 462)educational psychologythe study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)personality psychologythe study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)social psychologythe scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 754)applied researchscientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologythe application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)human factors psychologyan I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)counseling psychologya branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)clinical psychologya branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)psychiatrya branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)positive psychologythe scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 015, 590)community psychologya branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)testing effectenhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 016, 324)SQ3Ra study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 016)memorythe persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 318)encodingthe processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)storagethe process of retaining encoded information over time. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)retrievalthe process of getting information out of memory storage. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)parallel processingthe processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 176, 319)sensory memorythe immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)short-term memoryactivated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)long-term memorythe relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 319)working memorya newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)explicit memorymemory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)effortful processingencoding that requires attention and conscious effort. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)automatic processingunconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)implicit memoryretention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 320)iconic memorya momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 322)echoic memorya momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 322)chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 323)mnemonicsmemory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 323)spacing effectthe tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 324)testing effectenhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 16, 324)shallow processingencoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 324)deep processingencoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 325)hippocampusa neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 330)flashbulb memorya clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 332)long-term potentiation (LTP)an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 333)recalla measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 334)recognitiona measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 334)relearninga measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 334)primingthe activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 157, 336)mood-congruent memorythe tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 337)serial position effectour tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 337)anterograde amnesiaan inability to form new memories. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 342)retrograde amnesiaan inability to retrieve information from one's past. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 342)proactive interferencethe disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 345)retroactive interferencethe disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 345)repressionin psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 346, 560)misinformation effectincorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 347)source amnesiaattributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 349)déjà vuthat eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 349)cognitionall the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 356, 476)concepta mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 356)prototypea mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 356)creativitythe ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 357)convergent thinkingnarrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 357)divergent thinkingexpands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 357)algorithma methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 361)heuristica simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 361)insighta sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 297, 361)confirmation biasa tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 362)mental seta tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 363)intuitionan effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 363)representativeness heuristicjudging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 364)availability heuristicestimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 364)overconfidencethe tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 365)belief perseveranceclinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 367)framingthe way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 368)languageour spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 372)phonemein a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 373)morphemein a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 373)grammarin a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 373)babbling stagebeginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 374)one-word stagethe stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 375)two-word stagebeginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.(Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 375)telegraphic speechearly speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 375)aphasiaimpairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 377)Broca's areacontrols language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 377 )Wernicke's areacontrols language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 377)linguistic determinismWhorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 379)developmental psychologya branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life spanzygotethe fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryoembryothe developing human organism from 2 weeks after fertilization through the second monthfetusthe developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birthteratogensagents, such as chemicals and viruses, that canreach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harmfetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportionshabituationdecreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away soonermaturationbiological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experiencecognitionall the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicatingschemaa concept or framework that organizes and interprets informationassimilationinterpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemassensorimotor stagein Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activitiesobject permanencethe awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceivedpreoperational stagein Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logicconservationthe principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objectsegocentrismin Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of viewtheory of mindpeople's idea about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predictconcrete operational stagein Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete eventsformal operational stagein Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract conceptsAutism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mindstranger anxietythe fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of ageattachmentan emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separationcritical periodan optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper developmentimprintingthe process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in lifetemperamenta person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensitybasic trustaccording to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregiversself-conceptour understanding and evaluation of who we areaccomodationadapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new informationpersonalityan individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.free associationin psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.psychoanalysisFreud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the technique used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.unconsciousaccording to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.ida reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.egothe largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.superegothe part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standard for judgments (the conscience) and for future aspirations.psychosexual stagesthe childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.Oedipus complexaccording to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.identificationthe process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos.fixationaccording to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.defense mechanismsin psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.repressionin psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.psychodynamic theoriesmodern-day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.collective unconsciousnessCarl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.projective testa personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.Rorschach inkblot testthe most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Herman Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.false consensus effectthe tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.terror-management theorya theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's responses to reminders of their impending death.humanistic theoriesview personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.self-actualizationaccording to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.unconditional positive regardaccording to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.self-conceptall our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"traita characteristic pattern of behavior of a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.personality inventorya questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)the most widely reasearched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropraite use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.empirically derived testa test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.social-cognitive perspectiveviews behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.behaviorial approachin personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our development.reciprocal determinismBandura believed this existed. The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.positive psychologythe scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.selfin contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings and actions.spotlight effectoverestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as we presume a spotlight shines on us).self-esteemone's feelings of high or low self-worth.self-efficacyone's sense of competence and efectiveness.self-serving biasa readiness to perceive oneself favorably.narcissismexcessive self-love and self-absorption.individualismgiving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than a group identifications.collectivismgiving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.
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