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Praxis 2 Elementary Education terms

Terms in this set (330)

constructivism
students learn by building on prior knowledge and by doing
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem
domains of learning
conitive, language, physical, social-emotional, adaptive
Learning Theories
cognitive, behavioral, developmental, psychodynamic, sociological, ecological, eclectic
developmental theory
level of readiness must be reached to learn
sociological theory
children learn through their observations of others
ecological theory
influences from home, school, and community affect how well the student will learn
Strategies for teaching
developmentally appropriate practice, integration, scaffolding, cooperative learning, questioning, task analysis, content enhancements, graphic organizers, wait time, peer tutoring, student responses, instructional pacing, feedback
Aids for ELL learners
use language above abilities, repeat key words, slow speech rate, clearly articulate, avoid using difficult words, simplify materials
enrichment strategies
self-paced instruction, mentoring, ability grouping, compacting, telescoping, tiered lessons
performance tasks
complete a problem or project with an explanation for an answer
observation
anecdotal records and checklists to record students being observed doing tasks
journal writing
determine student learning from thinking processes, formation of ideas, and development of skills in creative and factual writing
portfolios
collection of completed student work selected by the student and the teacher
achievement test
formal tool measuring student proficiency of a subject area already learned
alternative assessment
solve realistic problems and completing projects using close to real-life situations
anecdotal record
informal measurement based on observation of student work or performance
aptitude test
formal measure of tests to evaluate student ability to acquire skills
authentic assessment
determines a student's understanding and performance of specific criteria
criterion-referenced test
formal measure that evaluates a student on a subject area by answering specific questions
curriculum-based measure
determines student progress and performance based on lessons presented in curriculum
dynamic assessment
determines student's ability to learn in a certain situation
diagnostic assessment
collect information about a student to use in assessment throughout the period of instruction
direct daily measurement
daily assessment of a student's performance on the skills taught each day and used to modify instruction
ecological-based assessment
informal observation of student interacting with the evironment
norm-referenced test
formal standardized evaluation comparing a student to other peers in the same age group
standards-based assessment
formal evaluation that measures student progress towards meeting goals
factors that predict reading achievement
recognize and name letters of the alphabet, print knowledge, phonemic awareness
skills needed to read
word recognition, comprehension, and fluency
language skills are developed
based on experiences they have and materials presented
linguistic awareness
ability to understand sound structure of language
activities to gain language knowledge
sound games, syllable clapping, rhyming songs, poems, jokes and silly rhythms, pictures in books
gain print knowledge
read aloud, children talk about story, independent reading center, environmental print, alphabet and word games
purpose of teaching reading
gain information from text, improve communication, increase pleasure
curriculum for reading include
phonemic awareness instruction, phonics, spelling, reading fluency, grammar, writing, reading comprehension strategies
decoding skills
process of understanding letters in text represent phonemes in speech
skills needed to decode
print concepts, letter knowledge, alphabetic principle
literature analysis needs
genre, content, structure, language of text, prior knowledge
narrative texts include
new vocabulary, descriptive words, realistic viewpoints of people and environment
poetry instruction helps
literal and figurative meanings of words, metaphors, similies, patterns of language
five spelling stages
precommunicative, semiphonetic, phonetic, transitional, correct
precommunicative spelling
uses symbols from the alphabet but no knowledge of letter-sound correspondence
semiphonic spelling
begins to understand letter-sound correspondence
phonetic
uses a letter or group of letters for every speech sound heard
transitional
understands conventional alternative for sounds and structure of words
skills critical to learning to read and write
print knowledge, emergent writing, linguistic awareness
reading instruction should include
phonics instruction and whole language instruction, alphabetic principle, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension
word recognition
identify words in print, which is vocabulary development
comprehension
construct understanding from the words
fluency
coordinate the words and meaning so reading becomes automatic
five results of print awareness
phonemic awareness, word recognition, phonics, comprehension, fluency
whole language approach
meaningful context, acceptance of all learners, flexible structure, supportive classroom, integration, focused expectations, context skill development, collaboration and scaffolding, authentic assessments
phonics instruction approach
explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics instruction in context, learn when address reading and writing activities
analogy-based phonics
a strategy taught to help students use parts of words they have learned to attack words that are unfamiliar
analytic phonics
students analyze letter sound relationships from learned words to those not familiar while not pronouncing sounds in isolation
embedded phonics
explicit instruction for using letter-sound relationships during the reading of connected text to sight read new words
intrinsic phonics
taught gradually in the context of meaningful reading
onset-rime phonics
separate onsets and rimes in words so students may read them and blend parts into words
phonics and spelling
teach children to segment words into phonemes and create words by writing letters for phonemes
synthetic phonics
convert letters into sound sequences and blend sounds to form words
literature based reading approach
read aloud to class, student oral reading periods, shared reading, sustained silent reading
comprehension skills lead to
predict outcomes, create questions, monitor understanding, clarify, connect
explicit comprehension instructoin
direct instruction, model, guided practice, application
six traits approach
ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, conventions
approach spelling with
alphabet knowledge, letter-sound correspondences, left-to-right directionality, word families, spelling patterns, phonics, word structures, irregular spellings, manipulating or building words
reading aloud promotes
language acquisition, oral vocabulary and usage, reading comprehension skills
phonemic awareness fostered with
music and songs, poetry and rhymes, games and puzzles
five levels of phonological awareness
rhyming and alliteration, sentence segmentation, syllable blending and segmentation, onset rime, blending and segmentation, phoneme blending and segmentation
phoneme addition
make new words by adding a phoneme to a word
phoneme blending
provide a sequence of spoken phonemes and form a new word
phoneme categorization
identify words that don't belong in a set
phoneme deletion
identify the word that remains when a phoneme is removed from an existing word
phoneme identity
recognize the same sounds in a variety of words
phoneme isolation
recogize separate sounds in words
phoneme segmentation
breaking a word into separate sounds and counting them
phoneme substitution
changing one phoneme for another to make a new word
phonics instruction
student names, nursery rhymes, sound games, read poems, sing songs, alphabet books, discuss words and sounds, word banks, point out consonants and vowels
instructional approaches for reading
direct instruction, inquiry based instruction, cooperative learning
assessments for reading
standardized reading test, portfolios, profile, performance task, anecdotal records
alphabetic principle
the concept that written language is comprised of letters that represent sounds in spoken words
blend
a sequence of consonants before or after a vowel in a given syllable
comprehension strategy
specific techniques that promote reading comprehension such as predicting and gaining word meanings from context
decoding
an ability to sound ot new words or to interpret a word from print to speech through the skill of sound-symbol correspondence
morpheme
the smallest unit of language that has meaning and may be a part of a word
onset and rime
parts of words in the spoken language smaller than syllables
oral language
development of spoken language system
orthographic knowledge
comprehending that sounds in language are represented by printed or written symbols
phonemic awareness
blending sounds in a word to say the word
phonics
promotes understanding of alphabetic principles and relationship between phonemes and graphemes
phonological awareness
understanding that sounds are related to written words
print awareness
knowing the basic concepts about written words
NCTM principles
equity, curriculum, teaching, learning, assessment, technology
core beliefs of mathematics education
challenged in math instruction, qualified teachers, primary standards, utilize and apply number, algebra, geometry, measurement and statistics concepts, activities related to math content, meaningful to students and integrated with other subjects, technology, altermative approaches, assessment related to math content, research
ten general standard strands
numbers and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement, data analysis and probability, problem solving, reasining and proof, communicatins, connections, representations
number sense
individual's basic understanding of numbers and operations and how to apply this knowledge to solve dilemmas and make decisions about mathematical problems and concepts
how to develop number sense
gradually, experiment with numbers, visualize numbers, use numbers, understand number relationships
focus of elementary math curriculum
number sense, counting objects, comparing, classifying objects, sets, exploring sets, number patterns
first grade number sense
addiciton and subtraction without manipulatives or using fingers
second grade number sense
addiction and subtraction usage on worksheets and timed tests
third grade number sense
multiplication and beginning division
fourth and fifth grade number sense
refined mastery of multiplication and division
types of number relationships for 1-10
spatial, one and two more, one and two less, anchors, part-part-whole
types of number activities from 10-20
pre-place-value, more and less, doubling or near doubling
kindergarten place value
counting to 100
first and second grade place value
work with units and tens, learning place value strategies
third and fourth grade place value
use of place value and hundreds and thousands
fifth grade place value
begin working with decimals
estimation instruction
different types of manipulatives, various strategies, situations that reflect real life situations
addition strategies
one-more-than and two-more-than facts, zero facts, doubles, near-doubles, make ten facts
subtraction strategies
subtraction as think-addition, subtraction facts with sums to 10, sums greater than 10
story problem steps
1. understand the problem, 2. determine essential information, 3. make a plan, 4. follow the plan, 5. check the answer
multiplication strategies
doubles, five facts, zeros and ones, nifty nines
fraction instruction
positive initial experiences, moved from concrete to symbolic very slowly
fraction manipulatives
region/area, length, set
fraction teaching strategies
simple contextual tasks, connect meaning of fraction computation with whole-number computation, estimation and informal methods to develop strategies, explore each operation using manipulatives
problem solving teaching strategies
task analysis, guided practice at conclusion of leve, closure activity, homework as a form of practice, writing to express mathematical thinking, cooperative learning
five levels of learning geometry
visualization, analysis, informal deduction, deduction, rigor
things to include when completing tasks on probability and statistics
data analysis, manipulatives, graphing data, interpretation of data
citizenship curriculum
what a government is and does, values of American democracy, role of Constitution, relationship of US to other nations, responsibilities of US citizen
ways to encourage citizenship
class newsletter, classroom management system, individual service projects, discuss public issues, participate in elections, school councils, create logo, motto or rules for class
transmission
learning of governmetn function and following the rulse as set forth. legalistic and assimilationist
transformation
analysis of information, formation of opinions and actions taken. critical thinking and cultural pluralism
key points in study of people
avoid stereotypical content, specify historical periods, variety of resources, diverse information
anthropology activities
visit museums, library research, study artifcts, native cultures, examples of cultural conflicts, storytelling
sociology activities
group membership, involve community studies, social problems, investigate communication
psychology activities
observe people, compare groups of people, researh human emotions, study human development
social structures activities
field trips to community entities, various technology, study economic systems, build skills in areas of communication
economics skills
describe economic problems, alternatives, benefits and costs, identify consequences in changes of economic policies, analyze economic evidence
economics curriculum goals
understand basic economic concepts and issues, recite economic facts about the US, explain historical events from economic perspective, trace historical economic patterns, compare economic systems, make decisions and realize decisions affect self and others
economics activities
create classroom societies, study the market, prepare personal budgets, workforce education
political science curriculum goals
what a government is and how governments function, how rules are made and enforced, why government is necessary, democratic values and beleifs of civic life
components of decision making
identify and define a problem, identify and define values, predict consequences and outcomes, reach decision, justify decision, if needed alter decision
curriculum plan for political science
families and schools, cities, state, federal government, ancient and foreign governments
citizenship curriculum
how government works, ways to change society for the better, value-based decision making, analyze social settings and conditions, define key political issues
citizenship activities
field trips to government facilities, scenarios for useful problem solving, discuss and debate current events
geography areas of knowledge
map skills and spatial organization of the world, places and regions of the world, physical and human systems, environment and society, uses of geography
geography curriculum goals
understand relationships of places to one another, distribution of resources throughout the world, how use of goods influence people who consume them, how decisions people make shape present and future, places change over time
primary components of learning geography
pattern, regularity, reasons for spatial organization
people, places and regions curriculum goals
physical and human characteristics of certain places and regions, human relationships that exist and hwo they function in places and regions, similarities and differences of diverse places and regions
physical and human systems curriculum goals
events are formed by human perceptions of places and regions, events of past provide insights into climate, resources, ecosystems, and migration of humans, why certain events happened a certain way
environment and society curriculum goals
consuming resources and altering natural patterns have consequences, building structures changes the region, reasons people compete for control, relationships of nature and people, carrying capacity, intended and unintended repercussions of human interaction with the earth
concepts and skills for social studies
organizing data, problem solving, comparing and contrasting, model building, planning, forecasting, decision making
three stages of map reading
topographical, projective, Euclidian
strategies to help map reading
simple maps to begin, instruct on simple symbols used, students construct a map
four aspects of maps
symbols, scale, directions, and grid
three types of essential lessons for social studies
utilize primary sources, incorporate fiction, use of timelines
science-technology-society perspective
study of social, political, and cultural values and their impact on scientific research and techological innovation as well as society, politics and culture as a whole
instructional cycle for science instruction
discrepant event, question, inquiry
discrepant event
unusual phenomenon demostrated or described to students
question
integrates the variable for selected investigation
inquiry
state question, formulate hypothesis, describe variables, indicate controls, collect data, organize data, use mathematical applications, conclusion, enrichment activities
demonstration
models or visual examples of the information
laboratory-experimentation
large group activity everyone does same experiment, inquiry not a part of learning process
inquiry-based
facilitated nad guided by teacher, process of learning given to students, small group projets, experimental investigations
unifying processes of science
systems, order and organization, evidence, models and explanation, change, constancy and measurement, evolution, equilibrium and cycles, form, function and structure
inquiry promotes
comprehension of scientific concepts, appreciation of scientific knowledge, understanding nature of science, acquisition of skills to become independent thinkers
reasons for use of computers and technology in science
computers available and used throughout the world, students comfortable with electronic equipment, information readily available, electronics provides opportunities for investigation, learning needs can be addressed by use of technology, technology vehicle of science scientists use
models
concrete, visual representation of something that cannot otherwise be seen
forecasting
discovering, simplifying, and applying patterns in scientific discovery
process indicators
observing, measuring, identifying content, interpreting data, classifying, predicting, researching, communicating, inferring, hypothesizing, experimenting
skills of proficiency of inquiry method
initiates investigation, investigates questions, discusses processes, presents ideas, challenges ideas, uses resources, uses prediction
indicators of attitude about science
enjoys science, participates in additional science activities, inquires about science topics, curious about topic, displays verbal skills, wants more time to participate
health curriculum
behaviors and conditions to ensure proper health, instill skills to use behaviors, teach attitudes, values and knowledge of behaviors, provide opportunities to practice skills
expository method
provide lecture, deliver demonstrations, impart explanations of science topics
free discovery method
students involved and motivated in learning process, children create situation of learning meaningful to them.
guided inquiry
teacher choose topic of study and identify process, students construct own investigation, determine needed resources, find answers and organize information
COPEC guidelines for physical education
30-60 minutes of physical activities on all days, 60 minutes of free play per day, daily activities with 10-15 minutes of moderate action
three concepts for physical education curriculum
children develop motor skills at different rates, child's ates doesn't predict motor ability but obtained through use and practice, children develop motor skills through play
first level of physical education
large muscle skill development, little formal organization, lifestyle activities
second level of physical education
aerobic and basic skills, recreation activities and formal sports, cardiovascular activities
third level of physical education
fitness concepts of muscular strength and flexibility, development of specific skill exercises
fourth level of physical education
"quiet" time, includes rest and inactivity
focus of physical education
spatial awareness, effort, and peer relationships developed through movement concepts and skill themes
purpose of physical education
steer children into the practice of becoming physically active throughout their lifetimes, improve academic achievement and ability to gain knowledge
basic concepts in physical education
motor development, body awareness, social adjustments and interaction
physical fitness
body's ability to function efficiently and effectively
muscular strength
amount of force a muscle can produce
muscular endurance
how long can a muscle produce force
flexibility
ability of a joint to move through its range of motion
cardiovascular efficiency
body's capacity to maintain vigorous physical activity for a period of time
body composition
determined amount of fat cells in comparison to the amount of lean cells within a person's body mass
locomotor skills
aid student in traveling or moving some distance, fundamental skill for accessing home, school and community
locomotor skill progression
walking, running, hopping, leaping, sliding, galloping, skipping
assessment of locomotor skills
informal observation, authentic assessment, formal observation, testing
body management
ability of a student to control his physical self, personal movements, recognize spatial conditions, and develop body-space relationships
social discipline
improving social skills through the use of appropriate behaviors
proactive
used prior to occurence of inappropriate behavior, use positive interaction, elimiate differential treatment, and prompting
reactive
used after inappropriate behavior occurs, ignore the behavior, use non-verbal interactions and person-to-person dialogue
four levels of physical education assessment
precontrol, control, utilization, proficiency
precontrol
movement or equipment moves the child instead of child being in control
control
movement more controlled and skill repeatd in similar manner everytime it's demonstrated
utilization
movements and skills carried out with intensified instinctive actions
proficiency
movements or skills become natural and completed without thought
overall importance of the arts
integrates other subjects, promotes symbol systems, improves language, uses higher order thinking skills, allows creative self-expression, develops independence, self-concept and self confidence, encourages use of personal strengths, enhances cultural awareness
two primary reasons for standards in the arts
help define what art education should provide and to ensure that schools support the arts
objectives of arts education
communicate at basic level in four disciplines, communicate proficiently in at least one art form, develop and present basic analysis of works of art
three categories of arts standards
creating arts, arts as inquiry, arts in context
parallel process
blending an arts related activity with an academic subject activity
Bandura, Albert
social or observational learning theory
Bruner, Jerome
discovery learning and constructivism
Dewey, John
learning through experience
Erikson, Erik
eight stages of human development
Gilligan, Carol
stages of the ethic of care
Kohlberg, Lawrence
theory of moral development
Maslow, Abraham
hierarchy of needs
Montessori, Maria
follow the child
Pieget, Jean
stages of cognitive development
Skinner, B.F.
operant conditioning
Vygotsky, Lev
zone of proximal development
Gardner, Howard
multiple intelligences
Hidalgo, Nitza
three levels of culture
Moll, Luis
funds of knowledge
Ausubel, David
advance organizer
Bandura, Albert
modeling
Canter, Lee
assertive discipline
Glasser, William
choice/control theory
Kounin, Jacob
"with-it-ness"
Hunter, Madeline
direct instruction
Pavlov, Ivan
classical conditioning
Cummins
Quadrant of comprehensible input
Quadrant a and b
congitively undemanding
Quadrant a
face to face conversation
Quadrant a
art
Quadrant a
music
Quadrant a
physical education
Quadrant b
drills and exercises
Quadarant c and d
congnitively demanding
Quadarant c
Role playing
Quadarant c
mapping
Quadarant c
lower level questioning
Quadarant d
reading
Quadarant d
writing
Quadarant d
math word problems
Quadarant a and c
context embedded
Quadarant b and d
context reduced
Krashen
Language Acquisition hypothesis
Krashen Affective Filter Hypothesis
Emotional variables such as anxiety, motivation and self confidence play a part in language aquisition
Krashen's Input Hypothesis
Learners must be exposed to messages a little bit beyond proficiency
Krashen's- The Monitor
Students need to be given time to correct themselves. Teachers can be optimal (users monitor when to focus on form), overusers (refer to conscious grammer all the time), underusers(do not refer to grammer at all)
Krashen's Natural Order Hypothesis
Grammatical structures need not be the center of cirriculum organization. Certain rules are acquired before others.
Krashen's Acquisition vs. Learning
Learning is formal knowledge(rules), acquistion- at the subconsious level (child's acquiring his first language).
Krashen's stages of second language acquisition
Preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency
Total Physical Response (teaching method)
In the classroom the teacher and students take on roles similar to that of the parent and child respectively. Students must respond physically to the words of the teacher. The activity may be a simple game such as Simon Says or may involve more complex grammar and more detailed scenarios
Krashen's Natural Approach
Language student's will emerge naturally whey they are given the opprotunity and need (motivation) to speak in a non-coercive/low anxiety situations.
The Grammar-translation Approach (teaching method)
You give a list of vocabulary words in L2. Classes are taught in L1.
Direct Approach (teaching method)
L1 is never used. Everything is done in target language.
Reading Approach (teaching method)
Used for specific uses of the language. People who do not want to travel abroad, but just need to read it.
The Audiolingual Method (teaching method)
based on the idea that learning is habit formation (drills) and the best way to learn in memorization taught through repetative drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided. Teacher can speak in native language, but students are discouraged.
The Silent Way (teaching method)
the teacher remains mainly silent, to give students the space they need to learn to talk. In this approach, it is assumed that the students' previous experience of learning from their mother tongue will contribute to learning the new foreign language. The acquisition of the mother tongue brings awareness of what language is and this is retained in second language learning. The awareness of what language is includes the use of non-verbal components of language such as intonation, melody, breathing, inflection, the convention of writing, and the combinations of letters for different sounds
Functional-notional Approach
Need to know o be functionsl
CALLA
Cognative Academic Language Learning Approach
CALLA
Teaching them know how to learn on their own based on their prior knowledge
CALP
Proficiency of the academic Language
Lau vs. Nichols
ruled that providing the same access to cirriculum, instruction, and material to students of LEP as is provided to English Dominante
Lau Plan
identify ELL's, design an effective program reflective of their needs, employ appropriate ESL or bilingual personell or both, align ELL's to state and local content standards, and to provide ongoing authentic assessment
Acculturation Model (Shumann)
The process of adapting a new culture;the new langage is seen as tied to the way the learners community and the target language community view one another.
Accommmodation Theory (Giles)
Motivation is the primary determinant of L2 proficiency;The more motivated you are the better you will perform
Discourse Theory (Hatch)
the flow and the structures of a conversation or topics within
Variable Competence Model (widdowson and ellis)
Learning the lingusitic rules will help you develope competence of the new language
The Universal Hypothesis (Chomsky)
Learners find it easier to to acquire patterns that confrom to linguistic universals than those that do not.
Neurolinguistics Theory (Lamendella)
There is a connection between language function and neural anatomy, focusing on the right and left hemisphere. There is a focus of specific aspects of SLA: age differences;fossilization;pattern practice in classroom SLA.
Model of Second Language Learning and Use
I.Input-----II.Intake------III.Acquisitions------IV.Access------V.Output
Input
Refers to language sources that are used to initiate the language process
Intake
that subset of the input that is comprehended and attended to in some way.
Acquisition
refers to the process by which te learners incorporates new learner incorporates new learning item into his or her developing system or interlanguage.
Access
refers to the learner's ability to draw on his or her interlanguage system during communication
Output
refers to the observed results of the learners efforts
Accretion Learning
is the subconscious or subliminal, process by which individuals learn important things like language, prejudices, habits, social rules and behaviors. Accretion is a process where individuals are totally unaware that learning is taking place. Accretion accounts for about 70% of what individuals know and understand.
Acquisition
tends to be more relevant to students and it appears to be the conscious choice of how students want to learn. This approach involves self-instruction, experimenting, inquiry, exploring, and general curiosity. Acquisition accounts for about 20% of what students learn.
Affixes
an attachment to the end or beginningof base or root words. A generic term that describes prefixes and suffixes word parts "fixed to" either the beginnings of words (prefixes) or the ending of words (suffixes). For example, the word disrespectfulhas two affixes, a prefix (dis-) and a suffix (-ful).
Alphabetic Principle
the notion that letters making a word have corresponding sounds, thus letters and sounds can be placed together to build words.
Assimilation
the cognitive process where information from the environment is integrated into existing schematato use and apply recently learned knowledge into one's thought pattern in solving problems.
Authentic Assessment
a technique to examine students' collective abilities via real-world challenges that requires them to apply their relevant skills and knowledge.
Bandura, Albert
found that although environment causes behavior, behavior also causes environment as well. Bandura labeled this concept reciprocal determinism,"both the world the individual's behavior "cause" affect each other. Bandura is considered a "father" of the cognitive movement, or, observational learning, commonly referred to as the famous, Bobo Doll studies. Bandura called this phenomenon, observational learning or modeling, better known as the social learning theory.
Behaviorism
a theory of animal and human learning that focuses on observable behaviors and ignores psychological activities.
Choral Reading
two or more individuals reading aloud from the same text in unison to enhance oral reading fluency.
Classical Conditioning
suggests that behavior is somewhat controlled by association and illustrated after a neutral stimulus accepts the eliciting properties of an unconditioned stimulus through the pairing of some unconditioned stimulus with the neutral stimulus.
Cognitive Coaching
- teaching students to use their own thinking processes to solve problems.
Cooperative Learning
is an instructional approach that encourages students to work collaboratively as partners or in small groups on clearly defined tasks.
Constructivism
constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Constructivism is based on the belief that children construct meaning from their experiences, and are not just passive receivers of information. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget's). The theory suggest that students reflect on their experiences, and construct an understanding of the world they live governed by their own "rules" to make sense of their experiences.
Conventional Spelling
-standard spelling is the correct form for written documents.
Critical Thinking
the thought processes students are able to rely on relative to problem solving. Here, students use creativity, analysis, and logic regarding their ability to analyze facts, make comparisons, generate ideas, defend view points, draw inferences, evaluate arguments and solve problems.
Deductive Reasoning
initiated from the general to the specific, and often referred to as the "top-down" approach. Deductive reasoning is more narrow and primarily concerned with testing hypotheses. In contrast, Inductive Reasoning is more open-ended and exploratory, especially during the beginning of the investigation.
Dewey, John (1859-1952)-
was concerned with how student the classroom environment affected learning.
Digraphs
two letters that represent one speech sound, as EA in BREAD, CH in CHAT, or NG in SING.
Diphthongs
- two-vowel combinations where both vowels are heard, but not quite making their usual sounds because of the blending, i.e., oy in TOY.
Echo Reading
a strategy where the teacher reads a line or passage with good expression, and calls on students to read it back. This is a good technique to use with Emergent Readers to help them build reading fluency.
Emergence Learning
s manifested via structuring, patterning, and constructing meaning, understanding, and ideas that did not exist initially. This process involves insight, reflection, creative expression, and/or group interactions. This method of learning is dependent on intelligence, synthesis, intuition, creativity, and problem-solving skil
Emergent Reader
the reader at the beginning stages of learning to read and developing an association of print with meaning. During this stage of reading development, children engage in reading play and retelling familiar stories from memory and using pictures to make predictions.
Etymology
the history or study of words.
Experiential Learning
credited to Carl Rogers who suggested that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning via: setting a positive classroom climate for learning; clarifying the purposes and rules; organizing and providing learning resources; balancing both intellectual and emotional components of learning; and ensuring that students engage in self-evaluation to assess their progress and success.
Equilibration
coined by Piaget to identify a process that regulates tension between assimilation (information) and accommodation (learning). Equilibration implies that individuals learn through experiences somewhat different from previous experiences. Thus, their mental structure is modified in small steps. Individuals learn best when the new incoming information is slightly different from existing information. This process will allow the new information to be assimilated with a small degree of accommodation.
Formative Evaluation
ongoing evaluation during an instructional sequence to allow midstream adaptation and improvement of the project.
Gardner, Howard
credited with coining the Multiple Intelligences Theory which is a pluralized way of understanding the intellect. Researchers believe that each person's level of intelligence is made up of autonomous faculties that can work individually or in concert with other faculties. Gardner identified seven such faculties he labels as `intelligences' including: musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, linguistic intelligence, special intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and, intrapersonal intelligence.
Guided Reading
is a strategy where experienced readers provide structure via modeling strategies in order to move beginning readers towards independence.
Guided Writing
- classroom teacher supports student development with the writing process. Students are required to write sentences or passages while the teacher guides the process and instruction through conferences and minilessons.
Homographs
words that are spelled alike but have different sounds and meanings (bow and arrow vs. bow of a ship) .
Idioms
the use of words peculiar to a particular language with a meaning that differs from typical syntactic patterns or from the literal meaning of its parts taken together. Some examples of idiomatic expressions would include, "John kicked the bucket" means "John passed away," or "chill out" means "relax, don't sweat it."
Information Processing
a theory advanced by George A. Miller who stressed the idea that short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). The term chunk represents any meaningful unit (i.e., digits, words, pictures, etc.). The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short-term memory became a basic element of all subsequent memory theories.
Initial Blends
the joining of two or more consonant sounds, represented by letters that begins a word without losing the identity of the sounds, such as /bl/ in black, the joining of the first consonant and vowel sounds in a word, such as /b/ and /a/ in baby. This skill is important in learning phonics.
Language Experience Approach (LEA)
a method of teaching reading by using the reader's own dictated language. This approach allows the reader to read words common to their environment.
Mastery Learning
proposes that all children can learn when provided with the appropriate learning conditions in the classroom.
Metacognition involves several important elements including, designing, monitoring, and assessing a specific plan of action. Steps students should take to enhance metacognition: (1) identify how much they know about a specific topic to consider for developing a project, (2) have an idea of exactly how much time they want to devote to the project, (3) have an idea of when the project is expected to be completed, (4) monitor their progress by reviewing their work relative to the project, and (5) assess their performance and/or satisfaction with the project or assignment. During this phase of the project, students should ask themselves, "am I satisfied?" or, "can I do a better job?"
"if so, how?" In short, metacognition is simply the process of "thinking about thinking." In fact, good readers use metacognition before they read anythingin order to help them clarify their purpose for reading and to preview the text.
Mnemonic Device
a device, such as a formula or rhyme, used as an aid in remembering.
Morphemes
word forms and another component of syntax. Morphemes are also the smallest meaningful units in language and word parts that could also change the meaning of a word.
Onomatopoeia
the terms used to describe words whose pronunciations suggest their meaning (e.g., meow, buzz, zoom).
Operant Conditioning -
coined by B.F. Skinner, is based upon the premise that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. The change in behavior is a result of the student's response to events (stimuli) occurring in one's environment. A response produces a consequence such as, jumping rope or learning to swim. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Skinner examined how learning was affected by stimuli presented after an act was performed. He discovered that certain stimuli caused the organism to repeat an act more frequently. He labeled "stimuli" with this effect the "reinforces." Today, classroom teachers are the recipients of this finding by using reinforcement as a means of controlling and motivating student behavior. The term "behavior modification" is an important technique teachers employ in improving the learning and classroom behavior of their students.
Orthography
the study of the nature and use of symbols in a writing system; correct or standardized spelling according to established usage in a given language.
Pavlov, Ivan P.
(1849-1936) discovered "conditioning" and initially believed that all behavior was reflexive. Pavlov thought that all learning, whether the elicited responses in animals, or of highly conceptual behaviors in humans was due to the mechanisms of classical conditioning. We now believe theory to be wrong.
Phoneme
A minimal sound unit of speech that, when contrasted with another phoneme, affects the naming of words in a language, such as /b/ in book contrasts with /r/ in rook, /l/ in look. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that change the meanings of spoken words. For example, if you change the first phoneme in cat from /c/ to /f/, the word bat changes to fat. The English language has about 41-44 phonemes. A few words, such as a or oh, have only one phoneme. Most words have more than one phoneme. The word ifhas two phonemes /i/ and /f/.
Phonics
teaching reading and spelling that stresses basic symbol-sound relationships and their application in decoding words in beginning instruction.
Phonological Systemis important in both oral and written language. There are 26 letters and 44 sounds and many ways to combine the letters
particularly the vowels-to spell many of the sounds. Sounds are called phonemes, and represented in print, and Graphemes are letter combinations.
Phonogram
a succession of letters representing the same phonological unit in different words, such as ed in red, bed, fed. or, IGHT in FLIGHT, MIGHT and TIGHT.
Piaget, Jean (1896-1980)
a Swiss biologist and psychologist constructed a model of child development and learning based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures or mental maps, "schemes," or networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within their environment. The child's cognitive structure advances in sophistication with development and grows from a few innate reflexes such as crying to highly complex mental activities.
Portfolio Assessment
provides a body of student work--essentially, a portfolio--that can be used to evaluate student performance over time.
Pre-writing
the initial creative stage of writing, prior to drafting, in which the writer formulates ideas, gathers information, organizes or plans.
Reflective Teaching
involves the ability to: research & explore, question & analyze, and make changes to both lessons and curriculum based on learning results experienced in the classroom.
Rime
the part of a syllable (not a word) consisting of its vowel and any consonant sounds that come after it, the first vowel in a word along with all of the sounds that follow, for example, /-utterfly/ in "butterfly."
Rogers, Carl
Experiential Learning
Round-robin Reading
an outdated reading strategy that attempts to teach students to read by having them follow other students in reading specific passages of text identified by the teacher. This technique is not recommended because it hampers reading fluency, its boring, and it causes students to lose interest in the story.
Scaffolding
is a metaphoric term used by Vygotsky to show how parents and teachers provide temporary assistance to children/students by modeling appropriate behavior or skills. In the classroom, teachers model or demonstrate specific strategies and gradually shift the responsibility to the student to demonstrate.
Schemata- a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are three types of schemata's, content, language, and textual. 1.) Content Schemata
includes systems of factual knowledge, values, and cultural conventions. 2.) Language Schemata - includes sentence structure, grammatical inflections, spelling, punctuation, vocabulary, and cohesive structures. 3.)Textual Schemata - includes the rhetorical structure of different modes of text, (i.e., recipes, fairy tales, research papers, and science textbooks).
Semantics
the study of the meaning in language and the analysis of the meanings of words, phrases, sentences.
Sight Word
a word that is easily recognized as a whole and does not require word analysis for identification or pronunciation, (i.e., Dolch 220 Sight Vocabulary List).
Skinner, B.F.
Operant Conditioning
Summative evaluation
evaluation that comes at the conclusion of an educational program or instructional sequence.
Syllabication
the division of words into syllables [the minimal units of sequential speech sounds comprised of a vowel sound or a vowel-consonant combination, as /a/, /ba/, /ab/, /bab/, etc.]
Syntactic System
the structural (grammar) organization of English that regulates how words are combined into sentences. Word order is important in English and during the pre-school years, children learn to understand, ask questions, construct statements, and many of the capitalization and punctuation rules that elementary students learn reflect the syntactic system of language. This applies to simple, compound, and complex sentences.
Thorndike, Edward
Connectionism
Whole Language
an approach to reading instruction focusing on reading for meaning and the integration of the four aspects of language reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
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