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C/P NS FL 1

Terms in this set (150)

What's the approximate molarity of NaCl in ocean water, if the density of ocean water is 1.028 kg/L ?

In the passage 3.5% (Convert to .035) of ocean water is salt.

Molar mass of NaCl = 58 g

Convert 1.028 kg > g

1028g x .035 = 36 g NaCl

36g NaCl / 58 g NaCl/mol = .62 moles

.62 moles / 1 L. = .62 M

Number of items equal to Avogadro's number (6.02 x 10 ^23)

1M solution of glucose = 6.02 x 10^23 molec of glucose in each L of solution

Molarity as Moles/L

Molarity x Volume (L) = number of moles of substance that are present ( mol = M x V)

concentrations of H+ / OH- ions produced in acid- base reactions

eg:
HCl gen 1 equiv of H+ ions and 1 equiv of Cl- ions/mole

Sulfric acid (H2SO4) gen 2 equiv of H+ ions and 1 equiv of SO4^2- ions/mole

Does NaCl diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer

Water can diffuse through

Osmosis

Results in flow of water out of the cell to reestablish isotonic solutions on both sides of the membrane

Simple diffusion

tendency of molecules to move down their concentration gradient

From a rea of high solute concentration > area of low concentration

What can simply diffuse across the cell membrane

Small/non polar molecules

Eg. Gases like oxygen and CO2

Allow H2O molecules to travel via facilitated diffusion

Transmembrane proteins

Mostly in kidneys in collecting ducts of nephrons

Hypertonic environment

environment in which there is more solute outside the cell than inside the cell

Hypotonic Solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is less than that of the cell that resides in the solution

Temperature the vapor pressure of a solution = atm pressure

Decrease in vapor pressure

Results in higher BP

Collimating properties

1) Vapor pressure reduction

2) BP elevation

3) Freezing point reduction

4) Osmotic Pressure

the pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid

Higher Vapor Pressure

Larger number of solvent particles are able to escape liquid and enter gas phase

When will liquid boil

when its vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure

Adding more solutes causes _____ in vapor pressure

The lower the vapor pressure

More energy required to increase vapor pressure to a level that matches atm pressure

More solute particles present, lower vapor pressure, _____ the BP

How do you calculate boiling point elevation?

Delta Tb = iKbm

i = ionization (Van HOff Factor) > number of ions eas solute molecule dissociates in solution

m= solute molality

Freezing point depression

The difference in temperature between a solution's freezing point and the freezing point of its pure solvent.

More solute added to ______ freezing and a ______ freezing point

Difficulty ; lower

Equation for freezing point depression

Freezing Point Depression = freezing point depression constant * molality

Delta Tf - iKfm

Osmotic pressure equation

π = iMRT

pi = osmotic pressure

M = Molarity

R = Ideal gas constant

T = Temperature in Kelvin

Water is a rare substance in that the solid is less dense than the liquid at the freezing point, resulting in a solid form that floats on top of the liquid. Which of the following best explains this phenomenon?

The bent structure of the water molecule and ratio of covalently-bonded hydrogens to lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom maximizes the hydrogen bonding that occurs in the solid phase, producing a hexagonal structure with large empty spaces.

How does most liquid become more dense

Avg KE ( Temp) decreases

What is the bond angle of water

How are molecules held together in water

Strong intermolecular forces - H Bonds

In a phase diagram, because the solid phase is denser than liquid, the line has a (Positive/negative) slope?

Positive

Indicates possible to convert the liquid substance > solid by increasing pressure

In the case of water in a phase diagram, the line has a (Positive/negative) slope?

Negative / downward-tilting slope

Opposite of other liquids

Calcium cation always have a

Sulfate anion always have a

Ion with lesser charge will use the suffix

-ous

Poly atomic ions only

Ion with greater charge will use suffixq

-ic

Polyatomic ions only

Monatomic ions use suffix

polyatomic ions that contain oxygen

Use suffix "-ite" and "ate" for compounds w/ fewer and greater number of oxygen atoms respectively

Added for oxyanions w one fewer oxygen than "ite"

Oxyanions for ions with one more oxygen than "-ate "

Eg: Hypochlorite (ClO-)
Chlorite (ClO2-)
Chlorate (ClO3-)
Perchlorate (ClO4-)
Nitrite (NO2-)
Nitrate (NO3-)

If a polyatomic anion includes a H+ ion

Hydrogen or prefix Bi- is added to parent anion

Eg CO3^2- ion is carbonate

HCO3- termed hydrogen carbonate/bicarbonate

Dehydrogenase denotes presence of

2 H+ ions

Eg Phosphate ion (PO4^3-)

H2PO- > dehydrogen phosphate

Beta-minus decay

A type of decay in which an unstable nucleus of an atom emits a beta-minus particle (an electron) and an antineutrino.

Conversion of neutron> proton, e- and neutrino

proton is turned into a neutron

A nuclear reaction in which an atom emits an alpha particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons. This increases the atomic number by 2 and the mass number by 4.

Beta-plus decay

proton decays into a neutron (positron is emitted) to preserve charge

How is a new isotope formed

Atom doesn't gain/lose proteins, only neutron count changed

length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay
T 1/2

How to determine how much of a sample is lost through half life

How to determine how much a sample remains

(1/2) ^n

n = number of half lives that have passed

Why did researchers choose to study pediatric, rather than adult, thyroid cancer cases?

Children receive a higher relative dose of I-131 at the same contamination level.
The most likely reason for the use of pediatric cancer cases is that these cases are more likely to be caused by I-131 than those in adults. Because children weigh less than adults, the same quantity of external I-131 would result in a higher concentration of the isotope in the body, making DNA damage and cancer more likely.

Why i chose Thyroid cancer is not otherwise present in children: Didn't think about how it is an extreme answer.

Steps in Metastatic Process

1) oncogenesis
2) tumor initiation (allow single cell to proliferate abnormally
3) Mutation to promote growth and dev of blood vessels to feed them (angiogenesis )

Difference between oncogene and tumor suppressor genes

Oncogene function to promote abnormal growth and proliferation > cancer

Tumor suppressor genes > prevent tumorigenic properties

Oncogenes arise from

proto-oncogenes ( mutation of other genes)

Certain mutation/inappropriately elevated gene expression> oncogene

A carbon atom attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms.

How to calculate stereoisomers

n Chiral centers will have 2^n stereocenter excluding meso-compounds

Optically inactive (achiral) molecule with two chiral centers; have a plane of symmetry between their centers which divides the molecule into halves that are mirror images of each other.

Clockwise rotation (+) plane polarized light

+

Dextrorotary (d)

Compounds that produce counterclockwise (-)

Levorotatory (l)

How to calculate specific rotation of a chiral compound

[a] = a/cl
Alpha = observed rotation

C= concentration in g/mL

L = length of polar i meter tube in decimeter (dm)

Majority of AA in nature are

L-stereoisomers

D/L isomers of carbohydrates occur in nature?

The more polar a compound is

Higher its solubility in aqueous solution

Recrystalization

Used to purify solid product with impurities

Dissolution of solid in solvent and recrystalized
Lattice structures of solid tend to exclude impurities

Based on relative affinity/tendency for a compound to attract to certain solvent/structure6

Column chromatography = absorbent silica can attract sample molecules based on charge/shape/affinity for sp ligands

Separates components by density using high speed spinning by density

Nucleation sites

Places to start forming bubbles

Needed when transitioning from liquid to gas during boiling

Achieved by scratching inside flask/boiling chips

When is vacuum distillation used?

When components have v high BP and be difficult to distill

In distillation procedures, which component will boil off first, the higher or the lower boiling point

The lower

Will leave the remaining components in original flask

What would create a higher boiling point

Hydrogen bonding

Examples of Hydrocarbons

Alkanes and alkenes

Low melting and boiling points

Interact w each other with London dispersion forces

single bonds, CnH2n+2

Hydrocarbons with one or more carbon-carbon double bonds

Example of oxygen containing functional groups

Alcohols (RC-OH)
Carboxylic acids (R(C=O) OH)
-> Higher melting/bp than aldehydes and carboxylic acid because of hydrogen bonding
-> Function as organic weak acid
-

Aldehydes (RC(=O)H)
Ketones (RC(=O)R')

Carbonyl Carbon of Carboxylic acids

Significant partial positive charge

Act as electrophiles

-OH group of Carboxylic acid

Can be replaced by other function groups to form carboxylic acid derivatives

Eg
amides (R(C=O)NR'R") (LOWEST REACTIVITY)
Esters (R(C=O)OR')
Acid anhydrides (R(C=O)O(C=O)R')
Acid halides (R(C=O)X) (highest reactivity)

(R(C=O)O(C=O)R')

presence of sulfur

An amino group attached to a carbon that is double-bonded to another carbon.

C=C-NH2

Formal charge equation

valence electrons - 1/2(bonding electrons) - nonbonding electrons

# valance electrons - sticks - dots

gravitational potential energy

mass x gravitational field strength x height = J

Maximum speed produced by

PE converted > Kinetic

Kinematic equation

v2=vi2+2a(deltax)

an atom, most commonly carbon, about which exchange of two groups produces a different stereoisomer

Must be bonded to four different substituents

effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

Attractive force of positively charged nucleus on the atom's negatively charged valence e-

Why does Zeffirelli decreases as one moves down a group?

The principal quantum number of the outermost energy level increases

Means that more shells of e- are added b/w the nucleus and the outermost, or valence, e-

The layers of the core e- partially shield valence e- from the effects of the positive charge in nucleus

Cations tend to have (larger/smaller) ionic radii than the atomic radii of their corresponding uncharged elements

Smaller

Why?

Uncharged atom must lose 1/more e- to become positively charged

Anions ionic radius tend to become (smaller/larger) than the corresponding atomic radius

Larger

Why?
Species must gain e- > becomes larger to take on their negative forms

During the force test with the mechanical stirrup, at what distance form the ankle joint was the force applied

133 mm

Use sin(90) = 1 because the force is applied perpendicular to rotation of ankle joint

Solve for distance (r) using r=T/F= (13Nm) / (98N) = .133 m or 133 mm.

Equation for torque

T = r F sin theta
Or

T= Fdsin(theta)
F (force applied)
D (distance force is applied from fulcrum )
Theta (angle between lever arm and force that is applied)

Perpendicular to the rotation > use Sin(90) = 1

3 ways to increase torque applied to an object

1) increase force
2) increase distance at which force is applied from the fulcrum
3) adjusting angle at which the force is applied to make it as close as possible to perpendicular to the lever arm.

In equilibrium setups where objects are not moving, how to account for torque

During the anterior drawer test, the joint translation occurs in 0.2s. What's the average velocity of the talus during translation?

2.85 x 10^-2 m/s

5.7 mm / .2 s

Why i got it wrong: didn't account for the actual distance since I rounded up

Equation for average velocity

If a 65-kg man undergoes a turning acceleration of 5 m/s2 during a running turn, what is the magnitude of force experienced by the foot due to the ground?

750 N

How to calculate involved

1. Account for normal force by the ground on the foot
2. Consider acceleration force (Since turning > horizontal)
3. Forms a right triangle
4. Find the overall force experienced > hypotenuse
- Fnormal = mg = (65mg) (10m/s^2) =650N
- Fturning = (65 kg) (5m/s^2) = 325N
- square root (640^2 + 325^2)
5. ~750 N

Newton's first law

Inertia

Forces of resistance and friction makes moving objects slow and stop

Fnet = 0 @ equilibrium

Newton's second law

Force

Total sum of forces acting on an object is equivalent to its mass times its acceleration

Fnet = ma

Newton's third law

Force comes in pairs

When body A exerts force on Body A Body B exerts equal and opposite force on body A

FAB = -FBA

How many moles of captopril were present in the original analyte solution tested?

1.5 x 10^-4 models

Equivalence point on Figure 2 is ~ 7.5 mL > Convert to L > (7.5 * 10^-2 L )

M(NaOH) x V(NaOH) = (2x10^-2 mol NaOH/L)(7.5x10^-3 L ) = 1.5 x 10^-4 mol NaOH

(1.5 x10^-4 mol NaOH)(1 mol captopril/1 mol NaOH) = 1.5 x 10^-4 mol captopril

a measured amount of a solution of unknown concentration is added to a known volume of a second solution until the reaction between them is just complete

Substance being analyzed

Monoprotic acid at equivalence point

M(base) x V(base) = M(acid) x V(acid). = moles acid

How to calculate unknown concentration or volume in a titration

NaVa = NbVb

N and V are normality and volume of of the acidic and basic solutions

Convert molarity (M) to normality (N) for polyphonic acids and polyvalent bases

Flat regions of titration curves represent

Buffering solutions

Equal mix of an acid/base and its conjugate

Steep near vertical sections of curve contain

Equivalence point

Indicate titrant has been added to completely remove one equivalent (Acid/base) from each of the original molecules in the unknown solution

Examples of multiple acid/ base groups that have multiple equivalence points during the titration

H3PO4 or Ca(OH)2

competitive inhibition

increases Km and does not affect Vmax

Increases Km because it takes more substrate to ensure half of active sites are occupied d

Vmax doesn't change though there needs to be more substrate to reach it.

Why does competitive, noncompetitive, and uncompetitive inhibition considered reversible

Inhibitor can dissociate from enzyme or enzyme substrate complex

If not, irriversible inhibition occurs

Max velocity reached by reaction

substrate concentration at half Vmax

Noncompetative inhibition

Km doesn't change ; Vmax decreases

Inhibitor doesn't compete with substrate for active site, reduces enzyme activity by binding to another site (allosteric) on. Enzyme

Can combine w/ enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex

Uncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds only to enzyme-substrate complex

locks substrate in enzyme preventing its release (increasing affinity b/w enzyme and substrate so it lowers Km)

Lower Km and vmax
S

slope of lineweaver-burk plot

Y intercept of a Lineweaver-Burk plot

X intercept of a lineweaver-burk plot

1/-Km
-the further to the right the x-intercept (closer to zero), the greater the Km and the lower the affinity

at pH values greater than carbonyl pKa of 3.7 carboxylic group will be found in ____ Form

at pH values below thiol group will be in a ____ form

Strong acids completely dissolves in

Weak acids partially dissociate and at an equilibrium coexist in a

Deprotonated (A- )

Protonated ( HA) state

Acid dissociation constant of a weak acid (Ka)

[H^+] [X^-] / [HX]

Ka express how easily acid release a proton (strength )
- express how dissociation state of weak acid vary according to [H+] level in the solution

How is pKa calculated

The smaller the pKa value,

the stronger the weak acid

Diatomic nitrogen

N2 as a very inert gas. It is inert due to the strength of the triple bond. It makes up something like 80% of the air you breathe in and has no signification chemical reactions with your lungs - or with anything other than nitrogen-fixing plants.

pressure equation

P=F/A
Force/area

Given in pascals (Pa)
atmosphere (atm)
MmHg
Tor

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 Torr = 10^5 Pa (N/M^2)

Assume gases are under 1 atm of pressure (magnitude of the pressure exerted by Earth's atm at sea level

Approximation of avg KE of molecules in a gaseous sample

T~KE avg = 1/2mv^2

How to convert Celsius to Kelvin

A principle that describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature

PV = Constant

P1V1 = P2V2

the relationship PV=nRT, which describes the behavior of an ideal gas

Gases are more likely to behave non-ideally under extremely high pressures or at very low temperature

IN VSEPR theory, what takes more space: Lone pairs or bonded atoms? Why?

Lone pairs because e- pairs generate the strongest repulsive force

Tetrahedral molecuels

Contain 4 e- rich areas

4 bonded atoms

Angles at 109.5

Eg. CH4

trigonal pyramidal

3 bonds, 1 lone pair, 107 degrees

polar
- 120 degrees

Eg. H2O

2 bonded atoms

2 lone pairs

Trigonal planar

120 degrees

Eg BF3

3 e- area

3 bonded atoms

Linear molecules

2 electron pairs around central atom
2 bonded atoms
Bond angle- 180º

Eg CO2

Trigonal Bipyramidal

5 bonds, 0 lone pairs

PCl5

Octahedral molecules

Eg SF6

6 e- rich areas

A circuit is constructed with a 12-V battery and four identical resistors, each with a resistance of 16 Ohms (Omega), hooked up in parallel. What is the total power dissipated by the circuit?

36 W

1/Rtot = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4

Substitute R = 16

R tot = 4 Ohms > Solve for power

P = V^2/R = (12)^2 / 4 = 144/4 = 36 W

When solving power what is it measured in

P=W/t

P = I^2R

P = V^2/R

In a circuit with resistors in series

the voltage is different over each resistor and the current is the same

R Total = R1 + R2 + Rn

In a circuit with resistors in parallel

1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/Rn

the ability of a conductor to store energy in the form of electrically separated charges

Q = VC

Capacitors in series

1/C=1/C₁+1/C₂+...

Capacitors in parallel

-capacitances add to yield equivalent capacitance

-equivalent capacitance increases as more capacitors are added in parallel

- same voltage across each parallel capacitor

*Cequiv = C1 + C2 + ...

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