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A & P Exam 1 flashcards

Terms in this set (132)

what is considered form?
anatomy
what is considered function?
physiology
atomic and molecular would be considered what?
chemical level
what is made of up cells that have become differentiated?
tissue
how many types of tissues are there? name all of the tissues.
-4 tissues
1. epithelial tissue
2. connective tissue
3. muscular tissue
4. nervous tissue
what tissue lines surfaces, controls what goes in and out, and is used in protection and absorption?
epithelial tissue
what tissue is small, secretes fibers for strength and elasticity, helps to support matrix, binds tissues and cell and gives metabolic support?
connective tissue
what tissue moves and compresses the body for contractility?
muscle tissue
what tissue conducts impulses, signaling and communication? this tissue is also responsible for integration, response, communication and stabilization.
nervous tissue
what contains components from each 4 types of tissues?
organs
how many organ systems are there? name all of them.
-11 organ systems
1. integumentary system
2. muscular system
3. skeletal system
4. nervous system
5. endocrine system
6. cardiovascular system
7. lymphatic system
8. respiratory system
9. digestive system
10. urinary system
11. reproductive system
what system is comprised of the skin?
integumentary system
what are some main functions of the skin?
-temperature regulation
-maintain fluids
-sensation
-vitamin D production
-protection from bacteria and viruses
what system is responsible for movement, support, thermoregulation and protection?
muscular system
what system is responsible for protection, support, attachment, lymphocyte/ platelet production, and mineral storage?
skeletal system
what system has a fast reaction, but is short lived. this system performs action potions through neurons. this system is also responsible for regulation/coordination, communication, memory/learning and immediate responses.
nervous system
what system is slow but long lasting? this system secretes hormones through the blood. this system is also key for developmental control and metabolism.
endocrine system
what system transports blood, gases, nutrients and waste throughout the body? this system is responsible for fluid pH homeostasis, thermoregulation, and clotting/wound healing
cardiovascular system
what system is the immune system? this system transports tissue fluid from interstitial spaces back to the blood stream
lymphatic system
what system is responsible for gas exchange, vocalization, balances CO2 production/buffer system and pH homeostasis?
respiratory system
what system is responsible for absorbing and processing nutrients as well as waste removal?
digestive system
what system is responsible for the filtration of blood, fluid and electrolyte homeostasis, pH homeostasis and waste removal?
urinary system
what system is responsible for hormone production, procreation, support of growing embryo (female) and secondary sex characteristics?
reproductive system
what is the condition where the amino acid glutamine changes to valine? this causes a depletion of oxygen within red blood cells and causes a shape change. this disease means there is an issue with the spleen because the spleen checks the shape of RBC. capillaries will have issues of clogging because of the RBC irregular shape.
sick cell anemia
what is maintaining a dynamic steady state within the body? this does not mean the body is in equilibrium. the body is constantly altering to reach steady states.
homeostasis
when does the body reach equilibrium?
at death
what involves a complex integration of monitoring and responding to both internal and external challenges?
regulation
what are the three components to a feedback loop?
-a receptor
-an integration center
-an effector
what recognizes and responds to stimuli?
a receptor
what receives a signal from the receptor and sends out a plan for how the body will react?
an integration center
a stimulus must reach what before a response occurs? the integration center will only respond if the signal is strong enough.
certain threshold
in a feedback loop, the action taken is considered what?
an effector
true or false: one stimulus can have multiple effects?
true

ex: · if there is a decrease in calcium the body may pull more calcium from the digestive system, or not allow bones to take up calcium for storage and pull some out of storage.
what are the most common feedback loops?
negative feedback loops
an effector action works in opposition to stimulus action to return the system to normal. this is which type of feedback loop?
negative feedback loop
which feedback loop counter acts stimulus in order to reach homeostasis?
negative feedback loop
when you are cold the body has multiple effectors. name some of them.
effectors can be
-shivering
-hugging yourself
-putting on warms clothes
this helps to counteract the stimulus of cold temperature
when the blood sugar is too high the body has multiple effectors. name some of them.
effectors can be
-pancreases releases insulin--> stimulates glucose uptake--> stimulates glycogen formation in the liver
-adipose tissue will store fat because there is a lot of sugar present...can be later used as an immediate energy source
an effector works to enhance stimulus action. which type of feedback loop is this?
positive feedback loop
in which type of loop does only the removal of the stimulus returns the system to normal. this feedback loops helps to accelerate change to remove the stimulus faster.
positive feedback loop
which hormone is released to increase contractions of the smoothest muscle which adds more pressure to the cervix so pushing occurs faster?
oxytocin
how is blood clotting a positive feedback loop?
-blood clotting is a stimulus injury to the blood vessels
-platelets are released and stick to the damaged area to seal the damage
-this healing process will occur quickly until the damage has been fixed
-in order for the stimulus to be completed the blood clotting process has to act quickly to removal the blood flow (stimulus)
what can be caused by the infection of bacteria or a virus?
a fever
why is a fever good at removing bacteria/viruses?
when someone has a fever their body temperature rises and many bacteria/ viruses can't survive/reproduce at such high temperatures
what hormone is released by the immune system to signal the hypothalamus to raise the body's temperature?
pyrogens
what can too high of fevers be dangerous?
fever can be harmful if they are too high because it can cause damage to cells (they can die), the cell membrane becomes too permeable (not enough restriction of material flow) and proteins and enzymes may stop functioning
what type of environment to cells exist and function in?
an aqueous environment
the body's internal aqueous environment is involved in the distribution of what two things? this plays a role in monitoring pH, affects excitability, communication and transport within a cell.
electrolytes and solutes
what makes up a major percentage of the human body?
water
what is the total body water (TBW) percentage for men and for women?
-men= %60
-women= %50
total body water (TBW) percentage will decrease with what? this happens for both sexes
decreases with age
different types of tissues hold varying amounts of water. name the percentage of water that is held in muscle and in fat.
-muscle= %85
-fat= %15
women tend to have more of what substance in comparison to males? this means that women store less water than males and males on average have an increased amount of total body water.
more fat
how do you convert weight in pounds to weight in kg?
weight in lbs/2.2
how do you calculate TBW?
-convert weight in lbs to kg (lbs/2.2)
-then take that number and multiply 0.6 for men and 0.5 for women

(· weight in lbs/2.2 = weight in Kg
· Men - weight in Kg x 0.6 = TBW
· Women - weight in Kg x 0.5 + TBW)
how does aging affect TBW?
-as you age you lose muscle and tend to gain weight in fat
-muscle holds onto more water than fat does
-less muscle and more fat means that dehydration is more likely
-older people need to consume more water so they do not dehydrate
how would TBW affect a person who is athletic verses someone who lives a sedimentary lifestyle?
-an active person will have more muscle=more TBW
-a sedimentary person will have more fat=less TBW
-in comparison the active person is less likely to become dehydrated because their body holds more water due to muscle
how much of the TBW is located outside of the cell in the extracellular compartment?
1/3
the interstitial fluid volume comprised how much of the EFCV? the remaining fluid volume is from the plasma, so what is that number?
-3/4 (interstitial fluid volume)
-1/4 (plasma)
what is able to move freely between the components of the ECF?
water
how much of the TBW is located in the intracellular compartment of the cytosol?
2/3
what acts as a water reserve for the ECF? this means that if water is needed it will be drawn from this area (but trying to not dehydrate cells)
ICF (intracellular fluid)
fluid shifts between ICF and ECF occur in opposition to what?
osmotic changes
what does (hypertonic) blood diabetes do to the ICF and the ECF?
fluid from the ICF will be drawn out of cell and into the ECF to help dilute the high concentration of glucose that is present in the blood
what is the total solute concentration in a fluid compartment called?
osmolarity
what is the ability of the combined solutes to generate an osmotic driving force, causing water movements between compartments; related to water potential?
tonicity
what concentration would not contribute to tonicity because it can easily diffuse between the cell and is not confined to a specific compartment?
urea concentration
when looking for changes in concentrations of osmolarity, what will always be looked at?
ECF (blood)
receptors that are involved in the regulation of the internal aqueous environment monitor which fluid substance?
ECF
what is the equation for the serum osmolarity?
2 x (Na) + glucose/18 + Urea/2.8 = OSMcalc (serum osmolarity)
what is the normal range for osmolarity?
275-295
an osmolality gap that is greater than 10 is abnormal. what does this suggest?
suggests the presence of an exogenous substance (something other than sodium, glucose or urea is causing an issue)
what kind of osmoles are confined to one compartment, affect tonicity and drive water movement?
effective osmoles (sodium and glucose)
what kind of osmoles freely move between compartments and do not affect tonicity? (free diffusion and equilibrium across the membrane)
ineffective osmoles (urea)
what is the most crucial osmotic driving force that maintains the ECFV?
sodium
if sodium levels increase too much, the ECFV overload can result to what?
edema (hypernatremia)
-decrease in TBW
if sodium levels decrease too much, ECF depletion can result to what?
decrease pressure (hyponatremia)
what is the main receptor system that maintains sodium balance and starts off the filtration in the kidneys?
kidney juxtaglomerular cells
what main receptor system maintains sodium balance and is the first chamber of the heart to receive blood back from the body?
arterial stretch receptors
what main receptor system that maintains sodium balance is the biggest artery coming off the heart?
aortic receptors
what main receptor system maintains sodium balance branches off the aorta and goes up the brain?
carotid receptors
what is the body's normal physiological pH?
7.4
acidosis occurs at what pH?
7.35 and below
alkalosis occurs at what pH?
7.45 and above
changes in pH can cause issues for what?
enzymes and molecular shapes
what stabilizes the pH by keeping the acid base ratio constant?
buffer
if a small increase in acid or base occurs what will the buffer do?
counter act the change
what are the three extracellular buffers?
-bicarbonate
-plasma proteins
-phosphates
what are the two intracellular buffers?
-cytoplasmic proteins
-phosphates
the primary buffering system (bicarbonate buffering system) relies on what?
-hydrogen concentration depends on the ratio of bicarbonate and pCO2
where is bicarbonate is produced?
cells and blood stream
bicarbonate concentration is regulated by what?
the kidneys
what produces the pCO2?
cellular respiration
pCO2 concentration is regulated by what?
the lungs
what is the normal range of bicarbonate?
24-26
how does the kidney regulate bicarbonate?
-reabsorption of bicarbonate
and
-excretion of H+
how is H+ normally excreted?
in ammonium
what is produced from glutamine metabolizing ammonia which results in the excretion of more H+?
ammonium
although CO2 is not an acid, it rapidly combines with h2o to form what?
carbonic acid
what are normal CO2 levels?
32-48
nonvolatile acids or metabolic acids are referred to as fixed acids and must be excreted by what?
the kidneys
name three fixed acids.
-lactic acid
-ketone bodies
-HCl
the daily production of fixed acids is buffered by increased production of what?
bicarbonate in the kidneys
a buildup of fixed acids can be temporarily compensated by the removal of what?
CO2
if fixed acids build up this will cause the body to go into what? so removing CO2 will bring the blood pH down to a more basic level
acidosis
when you are running you get a buildup of lactic acid, and you breathe really heavily which pushed out a lot of CO2. this could cause your body to go into what state?
alkalosis
what is an increase in pCO2 caused by decreased ventilation called?
respiratory acidosis
causes such as asthma, COPD, morbid obesity, airway construction and over sedation are all characteristics of what?
respiratory acidosis
increased pCO2, normal or increased HCO3-, increased K+, increased Na+, and a decrease in Cl- are all characteristics of what?
respiratory acidosis
a cellular compensation such as anti port exchange of K+/H+ means the cells will take in H+ to lower the pH level and K+ will move from the cell into the blood. this a characteristic of what?
respiratory acidosis
a renal compensation such as bicarbonate being produced in the kidneys with the excretion of ammonium results from taking in extra H+, there will also be an anti port enhance of H+ and Na+ and the kidneys will transport Na+ into the blood and absorb H+ and then excrete it (acidic urine), there can also be an increased secretion of Cl- (if they kidney is reabsorbing bicarbonate it must excrete Cl-)
respiratory acidosis
what is a decreased in pCO2 as well as a decrease in HCO3-, due to an increase in fixed acids or loss of bicarbonate called?
metabolic acidosis
causes such as keto acidosis, lactic acid, toxin intake, renal failure, GI disorder/ diarrhea are all characteristics of what?
metabolic acidosis
a decrease in pCO2 and bicarbonate, an increase/decrease of potassium and an increase of Na+ while a decrease fo Cl- are all characteristics of what?
metabolic acidosis
a cellular compensation of an anti port exchange of K+ into blood for H+ into the cell would be a characteristics of what?
metabolic acidosis
a renal compensation would be Kussmaul respiration which is deep breathing and trying to blow out volatile acid CO2 to stop acidity of blood; if the renal is functioning it will excrete fixed acids (kenos in urine)
(bone can also be a form of compensation due to alkaline salts)
metabolic acidosis
metabolic acidosis can be classified according to whether or not there is an increase in what?
the anion gap
what is the equation for the anion gap?
Na+ - (Cl- + HCO3-)
what is the normal anion gap range?
9-16
if the anion gap is above 16 what does this mean?
-addition of ketones
-lactic acid build up
-toxins
-renal failure
could be any of those options
if the anion gap is normal what does that mean?
-diarrhea removed bicarbonate
-beginning of renal failure (can't reabsorb bicarbonate)
what is a decrease in pCO2 caused by increased ventilation; causes an increase in pH?
respiratory alkalosis
causes such as hyperventilation due to anxiety, pain, sepsis or toxins are characteristics of what?
respiratory alkalosis
decreased CO2 and bicarbonate along with a slight K+ depletion is a characteristic of what?
respiratory alkalosis
cellular compensation such as anti port exchange of H+/K+ (bring in potassium and shut out H+...difficult to do so it is limited) is a characteristic of what?
respiratory alkalosis
renal compensations such as not excreting fixed acids, and not producing ammonium are characteristics of what?
respiratory alkalosis
what is a decrease in fixed acids and an increase in bicarbonate?
metabolic alkalosis
causes such as vomiting, diuretics, laxative abuse, kidney failure, mineralalocoticoids are all characteristics of what?
metabolic alkalosis
a decreased on H+, an increase in pCO2 and bicarb, a decreased in potassium (pulling K+ from the blood and releasing H+ into blood), and an increase of Na+ (if kidneys are not functioning) are all characteristics of what?
metabolic alkalosis
cellular compensation such as anti port exchange of H+/K+ (bring potassium in and shut out H+...limited) are characteristics of what?
metabolic alkalosis
respiratory compensation such as decreased breathing rate in order to retain more pCO2 is a characteristic of what?
metabolic alkalosis
kidney compensation such as increased excretion of bicarb, and decreased excretion of acids are characteristics of what?
metabolic alkalosis
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