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Psych 101 - Exam 6

Terms in this set (99)

What is associative learning?
linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together
Who was Ivan Pavlov, what did he study?
- Focused on the relationship between stimulus and response
- Classical conditioning
How did Pavlov contribute to the science of psychology?
- research about classical conditioning
What is associated in classical conditioning?
two stimuli
What is respondent behavior?
the behavior naturally evoked by a stimulus
Understand the following terms:
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Neutral Stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
- Unconditioned Stimulus: a stimulus that naturally and automatically leads to a specific response
- Unconditioned response: a natural and automatic response to a particular stimulus
- Neutral Stimulus: does not naturally lead to a behavioral response
- Conditioned stimulus: a conditioned association between two events
- Conditioned response: only happens because of the conditioned association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
How are the unconditioned and conditioned response related?
- They are both observable behaviors
- they are triggered by a stimulus
How are the neutral stimulus and conditioned stimulus related?
- Both do not naturally lead to a behavioral response
- Neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
Be able to describe the sequence of events involved in classical conditioning
- the conditioned stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus
What is acquisition?
the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together
Be able to describe higher order conditioning
- US -> UR
- Acquisition
- Pairing: US + NS -> UR
NS becomes associated with US, becomes CS
- CS -> CR
What is extinction and how is it related to association?
- extinction: repeated presentation of the CS without the US
- leads to weakening of the association between the two
- eventually the CS no longer leads to a CR
Be able to describe the process of spontaneous recovery
- Happens after extinction
- CS no longer evokes CR
- Time passes
- Present CS again
- and CS evokes a (much weaker) CR
How does the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery reveal what happens to learn that was extinct?
the conditioned stimulus continues to appear without the unconditioned stimulus, which causes the conditioned response to become weaker and weaker and eventually disappear, this is how extinction happens
What is generalization and discrimination, and how are they different?
- Generalization: occurs after initial acquisition
- for example: all pitches of a bell are triggering the response that it is time to eat
- Discrimination: learning to distinguish between a CS and a similar NS
- only particular pitches or patterns of sound are triggering the response that it is time to eat
Understand how classical conditioning can be applied in therapy
- Useful when treating drug and other addictions
- Identify the conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response relationship
- Train to avoid the conditioned stimulus and the relationship will go extinct.
Be familiar with the story of "Little Albert," and how it demonstrated the principles of classical conditioning. Also be aware that Watson did a very poor job of the research, rendering the study to actually be of little scientific value, through it remains a very powerful anecdote...whether the findings were as he described them or not
- "Little Albert" demonstration
- First, Albert played with a white rat
- Watson then paired white rat with loud noise
- Albert came frightened when he saw the rat
- Conditioned Little Albert into thinking that the rat meant that there was going to be a loud noise.
Be able to describe the similarities and difference between classical and operant conditioning
- Classical: associate two stimuli, behavior is respondent - automatically evoke by stimulus
- Operant: associate behavior with consequence, behavior is operant - voluntary behavior that operates on the environment
What is associated in operant conditioning?
a response and its consequences
What is operant behavior?
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
In what way is Thorndike's "Law of Effect" the basis for Behaviorism?
- Law of effect: behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Who was B.F. Skinner and how did he contribute to the science of psychology?
- Science of behavior
- Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
Understand why the operant chamber was useful for studying behavior
- Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
- Controls Environment
- Means to record target behavior
- Delivers consequences (reinforcers)
- Removes human subjectivity
What is another name for an operant chamber?
Skinner box
What are reinforcement and punishment and how are they different? What are each of their effects on behavior?
- Reinforcement: consequence that increases likelihood of preceding behavior
- Punishment: consequence that decreases the likelihood of the preceding behavior
Be able to describe both positive and negative reinforcement, give examples of each, and be able to identify them in examples
- Positive: nothing before behavior
- Ex. Reward after behavior
- Negative: Aversive experience before behavior, nothing after behavior
- Ex. Like taking aspirin to not feel as much pain
Be able to describe both positive and negative punishment, give examples of each, and be able to identify them in examples
- Positive: nothing before behavior
- Ex. punishment after behavior (give something bad)
- Negative: have something good before behavior
- Ex. Nothing after behavior (take away the good)
Be clear on how negative reinforcement is different from positive punishment.
- Negative Reinforcement: Aversive experience before behavior, nothing after behavior
- Ex. Like taking aspirin to not feel as much pain
- Positive Punishment: nothing before behavior
- Ex. punishment after behavior (give something bad)
Describe the process of shaping
- Ultimate desired behavior may be complex, or does not naturally occur
- Continually, gradually, require the behavior to be more and more similar to the ultimate behavior in order to receive reinforcement.
What occurs during instinctive drift?
begin to treat neutral objects as if they were the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer
What are primary and secondary (conditioned) reinforcers, and how are they different?
- Primary: Unlearned, innately reinforcing
- Secondary (conditioned): gains power through association with primary reinforcer
What is immediate and delayed reinforcement?
- Immediate: Immediately after a behavior
- Delayed: Delay between behavior and reinforcement
Be able to describe the similarities and differences of the four types of reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio
- Fixed Interval: reinforcement only occurs after a constant interval of time has passed since the previous reinforcement, behavior increases most near the end of the interval, behavior decreases after reinforcement
- Variable Interval: reinforcement occurs after a variable interval of time has passed since the previous reinforcement, behavior is steady both before and after reinforcement
- Fixed ratio: reinforcement occurs after a set number of times the behavior occurs, behavior is greatest because it alone directly causes the reinforcement
- Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of times the behavior has occurred
What are continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement and how do they map on to the reinforcement schedules?
- Continuous reinforcement: behavior reinforced every time it occurs, fixed 1:1 ratio
- Partial: Behavior NOT reinforced every time it occurs
How do the different reinforcement schedules affect the amount and regularity of behavior produced?
- Continuous: behaviors learned quickly
- Partial: behavior learned more slowly
How do they relate to how quickly extinction can occur?
- Continuous: extinguishes quickly
- Partial: extinguishes more slowly
What type of reinforcement schedule is associated with gambling?
Partial
Understand the reasons why physical punishment is a bad strategy for child rearing
- Physical punishment is consequence for child, but a behavior for the parent.
- Child stops their bad behavior, parent negatively reinforced for physical punishment
- Child able to endure more physical punishment
- Shapes parent's behavior to become harsher and harsher
- Physical aggression harms relationship, behavior, development, teaches aggression
How can operant learning be applied in everyday life and in therapy?
- Everyday life: A child throws a tantrum because he/she didn't get the candy bar. So, his/her father gets him one. He/She then stops the tantrum i.e. something unpleasant is avoided, and his/her father's behavior of getting candy will increase.
- Therapy: use reinforcement, punishment, shaping, modeling, and related techniques to alter behavior
How can biology prepare animals for classical and operant conditioning?
- Prepares us to perceive cause and effect
- Prepares us to associate some stimuli more than others
- Prepares us to associate some behaviors with a particular consequence more than others
In what ways does biology influence how easily some behaviors can be learned? Give some examples
- Biology prepares us to associate some behaviors with a particular consequence more than others
- Ex. Eating behaviors better learned with food reinforcer
- Ex. Escape behaviors better learned with punishments
How does the concept of "preparedness" relate to the influence of biology?
Biological Preparedness: associating stimuli together (such as a certain food and throwing up)
What is one-trial learning, taste aversion, and how do they show the influence of biology?
- One-trial learning: associating a certain stimuli with a response
- Ex. A certain food associated with wanting to throw up
- Taste Aversion: Food smell/ taste better CS than food appearance
- Ex. Poison, Nausea
What did behaviorism propose about the importance of mental states?
- they are learned behaviours that have been built up into conditioned responses.
Describe some ways in which empirical findings indicate the limitations of behaviorism. In particular, consider the concepts of latent learning and intrinsic motivation - and how extrinsic motivation can decrease the occurrence of behavior
- Latent Learning: rats learn mazes without reinforcement just as well as with reinforcement
- Intrinsic Motivation: engage in behavior because it is enjoyable (enjoyment is in the mind)
- Extrinsic Motivation: engage in behavior to get reinforcement, avoid punishment
- Providing reinforcement can sometimes decrease the behavior
What's a cognitive map?
- A mental representation of one's physical environment
How is observational learning different from classical and operant conditioning?
- No direct, personal experience of reinforcer or punishment
- Learning by observing others
How are vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment different from reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning?
- Vicarious reinforcement and punishment are both like monkey see, monkey do
- They see someone getting punished or reinforced for a certain action, therefore they do what is better for them
- In operant conditioning, the reinforcement or punishment follows the action
What is modeling?
learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others
Who was Albert Bandura and what was his contribution to the science of psychology?
- Social Psychologist
- Contributed the Bobo Doll experiment
- Learn by observing others
Be able to generally describe the Bobo doll study procedures and its results, and the implications of the results for how behaviors can be learned
- Children exposed to either aggressive or nonaggressive adult model
- Children then frustrated by experimenter
- Children left with Bobo doll
- Children who had observed aggressive model, aggressed against the doll more than those who had observed the nonaggressive model
- Children's aggressive behaviors were very similar to the adults, suggesting imitation
- Learn by observing others
What role might mirror neurons play in observational learning?
Mirror Neuron: when you observe another person doing a behavior, the same frontal lobe neurons fire as if you had done the behavior
Historically, how has mental illness been treated?
- Ostracism
- Warehousing
- Dubious treatments
- Culture suggests "plausible" causes because psychological disorders manifest in observable disordered behavior, which is supposed to be voluntary.
- Demonic Possession
- Perversion, depravity, "weakness"
- Unconscious forces
Understand the roles of Charcot, Breuer, and Freud in the founding of psychotherapy
- dealt with physical disorders, like seizures, muscular dystrophy
- Examined hysteria
- Determined that there are no apparent physical cause, linked it to the mind
- Believed symptoms linked to mental "idea" of past physical injury
Recognize the Freudian psychoanalysis and Jungian Analytical Psychology are not science-based approaches
- true
In Freudian theory and therapy...
understand the roles of the psychic structures of the ID, Ego, and Superego
what is the purpose of a "defense mechanism"
What are some of the techniques and what is their general purpose?
What is the task of the client?
Why is the client's relationship with the therapist considered important?
Generally, understand the importance of psycho-sexual development
Why is Freudian theory and therapy not as prominent as it once was?
- Id: primitive impulses, desires
- Superego: conscience, cultural and parental rules
- Ego: manages demands of ID within constraints of Superego reality
- Defense mechanism: ego employs defense mechanisms if cannot manage
* Techniques and general purpose
- Free association tasks
- Speaking freely
- Dreams
- Hypnosis
- Must overcome resistance to resolve conflict
* Client's relationship with therapist
- Client's conflicts reflected in relationship
* Psycho-sexual development
- Oral - Breastfeeding, weaning
- Anal - toilet training
- Phallic - Desire mother/father, castration anxiety, penis envy, repression, identification
- Latency - sexuality goes dormant
- genital - transfer sexual feelings to acceptable person
* Not as prominent
- Lengthy, costly
- Highly symbolic and abstract
- Elaborate explanations for simple behaviors
- "Sometimes a cigar, is just a cigar"
- Theory does not match experience
- Overkill for everyday problems
- Difficult to test scientifically
In Jungian theory and therapy ...
what are the persona, ego, personal and collective unconscious, and the self?
What are archetypes and what are some examples?
what are some of the techniques of Jungian analysis?
what is the task of the client in Jungian analysis?
what is concept of "the hero's journey"?
what is the goal of Jungian Analysis?
Why is jungian theory and therapy only rarely used?
- Persona: what we show to others
- Ego: who we feel we are
- Personal Unconscious: like Freud's complexes - our personal "issues"
- Collective Unconscious: common to all humanity - archetypes - universal psychological concepts
- Self: the entirety of the psyche
* Archetypes
- Figures: god, devil, wise old man, great mother, hero, trickster, anima/animus, shadow
- Events: birth, initiation, marriage, death, union of opposites, the journey/quest
- Motifs: the creation, the apocalypse, the deluge, the conflagration
* Techniques
- Dream work
- Free association
- Recognize complexes
- Confront integrate
- Ego enlarges to self
- Connection with all humanity
- Analogous to "Hero's journey"
* Task of client
- Explore history, childhood
- identify themes
- note connections
- reflect them to client
- client uses understanding to make changes
- Client centered, not theory centered
* Task
- believed all humanity shared a "collective unconscious"
*The hero's journey
- leaving one condition and finding the source of life to bring you forth into a richer or mature condition
* Rarely used
- Lengthy, costly
- Highly symbolic and abstract
- Elaborate explanations for simple behaviors
- Overkill for everyday problems
- Difficult to test scientifically
In general, what are the characteristics of psychodynamic therapy?
- Influenced by Freud
- Typically avoid Id, Ego, ect
- Unconscious still important
- In therapy
- Explore history, childhood
- Identify themes
- Note Connections
- Reflect them to client
- Client uses understanding to make changes
- Client centered, not theory centered
How does the current psychodynamic perspective differ from Freud and Jung?
- Jung acknowledged the unconscious mind, Freud did not
- it avoids id, ego, etc
- unconscious still important
In humanistic therapy ...
who is Carl Rogers and what type of therapy did he primarily develop?
What characteristics does a humanistic therapist present to the client?
How does humanistic therapy view the client?
How is a humanistic approach different from a psychodynamic approach?
What techniques does a humanistic therapist use?
Understand the concept of "unconditional positive regard"
- Carl Rogers: humanistic psychologist
- Humanistic therapy
* Characteristics, techniques, and view the client
- nondirective
- client centered
- genuineness
- active listening
- echo
- restate
- seek clarification
- identify feelings
- Unconditional positive regard
- non judgemental
- accept and value the client no matter what
* Differ from psychodynamic
- more personable
- focus on conscious thoughts, "real life."
- see task as growing, not curing
* Unconditional positive regard
- non judgemental
- accept and value the client no matter what
What fundamental principles guide behavioral therapy?
- Perspective: people seek therapy when things are not going well, they experience distress because of a maladaptive behavior
- Define success: define maladaptive behavior to stop, adaptive behavior to start
- Fully understand behavior
- Make a behavioral change plan
Who were Mary Cover Jones and Joseph Wolpe, and what roles did they play in Behavioral therapy?
- Mary Cover Jones - contributed to the development of desensitization methods
- Joseph Wolpe: worked on a scale for how sensitive people were
How does classical conditioning explain the effectiveness of exposure therapies?
- Conditioned stimulus produces conditioned response of fear, anxiety
-Repeatedly expose client to CS while "working against" CR
- Extinction of learning, CS no longer evokes CR
What is a token economy and how can it be used to change behavior?
- system used in behavior modification to provide positive reinforcement to a child
- teaches behaviors that are desired and discourage those that are not
Understand the principle of counterconditioning
- Changing how the conditioned stimulus works
What do exposure therapies aim to do?
- Repeatedly expose client to conditioned stimulus while working against conditioned response
- used to treat fear
- helpful to have a new, adaptive behavior to replace old maladaptive behavior
What is "flooding," and can you give an example?
- Flooding: intense exposure to anxiety-producing stimuli
- may achieve quick results, but can be very unpleasant, may make client drop out of therapy
What is systematic desensitization and can you give an example?
- Identify stimuli that evoke anxiety, fear, anger
- train relaxation technique
- relax and expose to stimuli that gradually increase in their ability to elicit anxiety, fear, anger
- Ex. Fear of driving a car
- relax and sit in car
- relax and drive in parking lots
- relax and drive on isolated roads
- relax and drive in town
How does aversive conditioning work, and for what types of problems?
- Based on classical conditioning
- To stop a maladaptive behavior, pair the stimulus for the behavior with a very unpleasant unconditioned stimulus
- Antabuse causes intense sickness in response to alcohol consumption
- Counter conditioning: changing how the conditioned stimulus works
How can virtual reality be used in behavioral therapy?
- Allows you to experience an event but not have it happening to you at the moment
How does relaxation training work?
- Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) supports "fight or flight" response
- SNS increases anxiety, fear, anger
- Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) calms, counteracts SNS
- Relaxation technique involves muscle relaxation and slow, deep, rhythmic, diaphragmatic breathing
- Relaxation activates PNS
- Using relaxation technique counteracts SNS, decreases anxiety, fear, anger
How is relaxation training employed to address anxiety problems?
- muscle relaxation & slow, deep, rhythmic, diaphragmatic breathing
- activates PNS
Who was Aaron Beck and how did he contribute to cognitive therapy?
- Was a researcher and scientist
- Developed cognitive therapy
How does cognitive therapy differ from behavioral therapy?
- How behaviors affect our feelings
- Practicing new and better behaviors
What are some of the strategies used by cognitive therapists?
- Analyze the problem from the client's perspective
- Identify automatic thoughts
- Evaluate automatic thoughts
How do therapists combine cognitive and behavioral techniques into cognitive-behavioral therapy?
- Combines the way we think and the effects of our behaviors
What are the different ways that we can assess therapy effectiveness?
- Randomized: patients assigned to study conditions at random
- Controlled: compare treatment to placebo control condition, or standard care control condition
- Double blind: neither experimenter nor patients know which condition any patient is in
- Intervention: treatment under investigation
What is meta-analysis and how is it used?
- Results of a single study could reflect chance effects
- Solution: meta analysis combines results from many studies to better estimate the average effect of a treatment
Which therapies are best for the various kinds of problems people face?
- Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies—primarily anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, insomnia, and depression
- Behavioral conditioning therapies—behavior problems such as bed-wetting, specific phobias, compulsions, marital difficulties, and sexual dysfunctions
- Psychodynamic therapy—depression and anxiety
- Nondirective (person-centered) counseling—mild to moderate depression
What is evidence based practice?
clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences
Describe what eye movement desensitization and reprocessing is and what it is used for. How well does it work?
- a controversial form of psychotherapy in which the person being treated is asked to recall distressing images; the therapist then directs the patient in one type of bilateral stimulation, such as side-to-side eye rapid movement or hand tapping.
- Around 80% success
Describe what light exposure therapy is and what it is used for. How well does it work?
- a way to treat seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and certain other conditions by exposure to artificial light
- start to improve for some but not all
What is therapeutic allience?
- a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem
How does psychotherapy help people, regardless of the particular therapy used?
- Reduce people's suffering
- apply many methods to understand how to lessen people's disordered thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
What are the various types of professionals who provide psychotherapy, what is their training, and on what types of problems do they typically focus?
- Clinical Psychologists: research and therapy
- Counselors: counseling people, problems arising through family
- Psychiatrist: treatment of psychological disorders
- Clinical or psychiatric social worker: psychotherapy
What is the rationale for seeking biomedical therapies for the treatment of psychological disorders?
- for treating psychological disorders by directly impacting responsible physiological process or structure
Think about why one might and might not consider lifestyle change to be a biomedical therapy
* Why
- Altering biological functions
- Altering biological structures
* why not
- directly impacts behaviors and only indirectly affect physiology
- Action of physiology only indirect
- Could cause psychological symptoms
- Not a biomedical therapy
What kinds of treatment are typically considered to be biomedical therapies?
- Drugs/Pharmacotherapy
- Electrical stimulation
- Magnetic Impulses
- Psychosurgery
What is tardive dyskinesia?
involuntary perioral movements: biting, chewing, grimacing, tongue protrusions
What are some of the major types of disorders that have been effectively treated with psychotherapeutic drugs?
- Schizophrenia/ psychosis
- Anxiety Disorders
- Depressive disorders
- Bipolar disorder
What is psychopharmacology?
the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
What is deep brain stimulation?
electrodes are surgically implanted in specific areas of the brain
What is trephination?
An ancient operation in which a stone instrument was used to cut away a circular section of the skull, perhaps to treat abnormal behavior.
How effective is ECT for the treatment of severe depression?
- quite effective
What is frontal lobotomy, and during what decades was it primarily used?
- Sever frontal lobe from rest of brain
- pre 1960s
What factors led to the use of lobotomies?
- Lack of regulation, disregard for patients rights
- Therapeutic nihilism
What is a case study?
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
How is clinical trial different from a case study?
*Case study
- might truly reflect new effective procedure
- Highly likely to be due to random effects
- Often relies on subjective judgements
* Clinical Research
- large scale, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled clinical trial
- gold standard for testing efficacy
Understand the importance of the following factors in conducting therapy research:
Large scale
Random assignment
Experimental design
Double-blind
Placebo-controlled
* Large Scale: decreases likelihood that an effect was due to just a couple of lucky cases
* Random Assignment: randomly selecting who gets what treatment
* Experimental Design: how the experiment is set up can drastically affect the results
* Double-blind: neither doctors/researchers nor patients know which treatment the patient is in
- prevents doctors and patient's expectations of treatment effects from affecting subjective judgements
* Placebo-controlled: Receiving any treatment, even a bogus treatment, could cause improvement, or the perception of improvement
- One gets real treatment while the other doesn't
- patients in real treatment need to do better than those in placebo to show efficacy
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