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Module 14 NBL 655 hypothalamus, brainstem, etc

Terms in this set (58)

What are the functions of the amygdala?
--Part of the limbic system, the amygdala is an integration center that is critical for the processing of emotion, including emotional reactions, emotional communication, emotional memory, motivation, and decision making.

--The amygdala is interconnected with numerous cortical and subcortical areas, receiving inputs from all the senses via the thalamus and cerebral cortex and from the hypothalamus and brainstem.

--Connections to these areas allow the amygdala to process information from sensory areas and areas associated with behavior and autonomic function.

--The amygdala interacts directly with other parts of the limbic system, generating autonomic emotional reactions particularly related to survival, such as fear and the fight-or-flight response.

--In addition, the amygdala is involved in processing of other emotions, such as anger, pleasure, and motivation.

--It's also involved in the modulation of a variety of cognitive functions, such as attention and perception

--is responsible for providing emotional content to long-term declarative memories.
Describe the 3 subparts of the amygdala. What are each their functions and where do they provide outputs to?
--Composed of approximately 13 nuclei, the amygdala is functionally divided into 3 major interconnected regions:
1) the basolateral complex
2) the corticomedial nuclear group
3) central nucleus.

--The largest subdivision, the basolateral complex, has reciprocal connections with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hippocampus.

-- Information from the olfactory system is received by the corticomedial nuclei.
--The corticomedial nuclei and central nucleus provide direct outputs to the hypothalamus,

--and the central nucleus also provides direct output to brainstem areas that control expression of innate behaviors and associated physiologic responses.
Describe the location and structure of the amygdala
--The amygdala is a subcortical almond-shaped group of nuclei derived located deep and medially within each temporal lobe.

--Composed of approximately 13 nuclei, the amygdala is functionally divided into 3 major interconnected regions:
1) the basolateral complex
2) the corticomedial nuclear group
3) central nucleus
Where does the amygdala receive input from? How does this relate to its functions?
--The amygdala is interconnected with numerous cortical and subcortical areas, receiving inputs from all the senses via the thalamus and cerebral cortex and from the hypothalamus and brainstem.

--Connections to these areas allow the amygdala to process information from sensory areas and areas associated with behavior and autonomic function.
Which of the following brain areas is responsible for: --is responsible for providing emotional content to long-term declarative memories.

A) Amygdala
B) Hippocampus
C) Hypothalamus
D) Brainstem
E) PFC (prefrontal cortex)
F) Entorhinal Cortex
G) Reticular Formation
A; amygdala
What are the main functions of the hippocampus? What is declarative memory?
The medial temporal lobe contains the hippocampus and associated cortical structures that are critical for encoding long-term declarative and spatial memory and the transmission of memories to other cortical regions for long-term memory storage.

--Declarative memory includes semantic memory (for facts) and episodic memory (for events).

--The hippocampus has also been implicated in navigation and spatial cognition.

--Since different neuronal cell types are neatly organized into layers in the hippocampus, it has frequently been used as a model system for studying neural plasticity known as long-term potentiation (LTP), which was initially discovered to occur in the hippocampus.

--LTP is widely believed to be one of the main neural mechanisms by which memories are encoded and probably stored in the brain.
Which of the following brain regions does this describe: In Alzheimer's disease (and other forms of dementia), the __________ is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage; memory loss and disorientation are included among the early symptoms in AD.

A) Amygdala
B) Hippocampus
C) Hypothalamus
D) Brainstem
E) PFC (prefrontal cortex)
F) Entorhinal Cortex
G) Reticular Formation
B; Hippocampus
Describe how the hippocampus is organized and where it is located. How does this relate to its function?
The medial temporal lobe contains the hippocampus and associated cortical structures that are critical for encoding long-term declarative and spatial memory and the transmission of memories to other cortical regions for long-term memory storage.

--The hippocampus looks similar to a seahorse or ram's horn.

--The hippocampus is part of cerebral cortex but is allocortex with only 3-4 layers.

--Since different neuronal cell types are neatly organized into layers in the hippocampus, it has frequently been used as a model system for studying neural plasticity known as long-term potentiation (LTP), which was initially discovered to occur in the hippocampus.
What are the main inputs and outputs for the hippocampus?
--The main output from the hippocampus is to the subiculum, which projects to numerous areas including the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, nucleus accumbens and other areas.
--The main input to the hippocampus is from the entorhinal cortex.
The entorhinal cortex is reciprocally connected with many cortical and subcortical structures including sensory areas, thalamic nuclei, medial septal nucleus, hypothalamus, and brainstem.
What is the entorhinal cortex? What are its functions and what is it a part of? What is it connected to?
--The main input to the hippocampus is from the entorhinal cortex.

The entorhinal cortex is reciprocally connected with many cortical and subcortical structures including sensory areas, thalamic nuclei, medial septal nucleus, hypothalamus, and brainstem.

-- it is implicated in spatial and navigation cognition
What are the main functions of the hypothalamus?
--The overarching function of the hypothalamus is integration and control of body functions for survival and reproduction.

--The hypothalamus acts as an integrator to regulate basic life- and species-sustaining functions such as fluid and electrolyte balance, drinking and feeding behavior, energy metabolism, thermoregulation, stress responses, and sleep-wake cycles, as well as sexual behavior and reproduction.

--To produce control over so many bodily functions, the hypothalamus uses 3 major outputs: 1) the behavioral
2) autonomic
3) endocrine systems.

--The hypothalamus receives sensory inputs necessary for the detection of changes in both the internal and external environments and controls behaviors related to those inputs.

--In addition, regions within the hypothalamus contain sensors for blood sugar, temperature, and ion levels and receptors for stress and appetite hormones.

--As part of the limbic system, the hypothalamus receives inputs from the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex, which provide highly processed sensory and salience information from the rest of the cerebral cortex.
--These inputs to the hypothalamus contribute to a range of emotional responses, feelings, and expressions, as well as behaviors such as aggression and motivational behaviors, such as drinking, feeding, and sexual behaviors.

--Well interconnected with the brainstem and spinal cord, the hypothalamus is also involved in control of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

--The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, which releases hormones into the bloodstream and consequently controls many physiologic functions of the body.
--Some neurons in the hypothalamus send their axons to form the posterior pituitary where they secrete oxytocin and vasopressin directly into the circulation.
--Other neurons in the hypothalamus send axons that release hypothalamic hormones, which act on the anterior pituitary to regulate secretion of specific anterior pituitary hormones into the circulation.

--Another key function of the hypothalamus is regulation of body functions in concert with the daily light-dark cycle, in which the suprachiasmatic nucleus is responsible for entraining circadian rhythms to the day-night cycle.
What are the 3 major outputs from the hypothalamus? Why does it need this many outputs?
--To produce control over so many bodily functions, the hypothalamus uses 3 major outputs: 1) the behavioral
2) autonomic
3) endocrine systems.
Describe how the hypothalamus is associated with sensory info? How does it do this and why does it do this? What behaviors does it control in response to this?
--The hypothalamus receives sensory inputs necessary for the detection of changes in both the internal and external environments and controls behaviors related to those inputs.

--The hypothalamus receives direct sensory inputs from all the sensory systems.

--In addition, regions within the hypothalamus contain sensors for blood sugar, temperature, and ion levels and receptors for stress and appetite hormones.
Describe how the hypothalamus is associated with the limbic system? What inputs does it receive related to the limbic system? What behaviors does it control in response to this?
--As part of the limbic system, the hypothalamus receives inputs from the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex, which provide highly processed sensory and salience information from the rest of the cerebral cortex.

--These inputs to the hypothalamus contribute to a range of emotional responses, feelings, and expressions, as well as behaviors such as aggression and motivational behaviors, such as drinking, feeding, and sexual behaviors.
The hypothalamus links the __________ to the _________. How does it accomplish this?
--The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, which releases hormones into the bloodstream and consequently controls many physiologic functions of the body.
How is the hypothalamus connected to the ANS? What happens as a result of this connection?
--Well interconnected with the brainstem and spinal cord, the hypothalamus is also involved in control of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

--Hypothalamic neurons send axons directly to the preganglionic neurons in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic ANS.

--In addition, the hypothalamus has extensive outputs to adjust brainstem circuits that regulate autonomic output.
How are the hypothalamus and the endocrine system connected? What can occur as a result of these connections?
--The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, which releases hormones into the bloodstream and consequently controls many physiologic functions of the body.
--Some neurons in the hypothalamus send their axons to form the posterior pituitary where they secrete oxytocin and vasopressin directly into the circulation.
--Other neurons in the hypothalamus send axons that release hypothalamic hormones, which act on the anterior pituitary to regulate secretion of specific anterior pituitary hormones into the circulation.
Which region of the brain is this associated with:
Another key function of the ______________ is regulation of body functions in concert with the daily light-dark cycle, in which the suprachiasmatic nucleus is responsible for entraining circadian rhythms to the day-night cycle.

A) Amygdala
B) Hippocampus
C) Hypothalamus
D) Brainstem
E) PFC (prefrontal cortex)
F) Entorhinal Cortex
G) Reticular Formation
C; hypothalamus
Where is the hypothalamus found?
The single hypothalamus lies beneath the thalamus and anterior to the midbrain.
Which region of the brain is this associated with
In addition, regions within the ________________ contain sensors for blood sugar, temperature, and ion levels and receptors for stress and appetite hormones.

A) Amygdala
B) Hippocampus
C) Hypothalamus
D) Brainstem
E) PFC (prefrontal cortex)
F) Entorhinal Cortex
G) Reticular Formation
C; hypothalamus
What are the main functions of the brainstem? What regions are these functions found in?
Considered one of the most primitive parts of the human brain, the brainstem (or brain stem) is the structure most important to life.

--The brainstem contains nuclei, which are essential for automatic, reflex, and autonomic functions that are critical for survival, and white matter tracks that connect the forebrain with the cerebellum and spinal cord.

--The white matter tracts are involved in transmission of motor impulses that control the body and head and the largest majority of sensory tracts.

-- In addition, 10 of the 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves emerge directly from the brainstem, with nuclei involved in both somatic motor and sensory functions of the head, face, and neck and in autonomic parasympathetic functions.

--The brainstem also contains nuclei involved in essential automatic processes, including breathing and nuclei for the control of cardiac, vascular and respiratory function, helping to control heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate.

--It also contains the reticular formation, a group of nuclei located from the upper midbrain to the lower medulla that function in arousal, alertness, sleep and wakefulness, consciousness, and other motor and sensory functions.

--the midbrain contains the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, two regions that contain dopaminergic neuron cell bodies that contribute to the basal ganglia and are involved in motor control, and motivation and reward pathways.

--The pons contains the locus coeruleus, which contains the cell bodies of norepinephrine neurons (noradrenergic neurons).

--The Raphe nuclei, which contain the cell bodies or serotonergic neurons, are located in the midbrain, pons and medulla.
Which of the following brain regions does this describe:
is reciprocally connected with many cortical and subcortical structures including sensory areas, thalamic nuclei, medial septal nucleus, hypothalamus, and brainstem. It is involved in spatial and navigational cognition.

A) Amygdala
B) Hippocampus
C) Hypothalamus
D) Brainstem
E) PFC (prefrontal cortex)
F) Entorhinal Cortex
G) Reticular Formation
F; Entorhinal cortex
Which of the following brain regions does this describe: : _____________ a group of nuclei located from the upper midbrain to the lower medulla that function in arousal, alertness, sleep and wakefulness, consciousness, and other motor and sensory functions.

A) Amygdala
B) Hippocampus
C) Hypothalamus
D) Brainstem
E) PFC (prefrontal cortex)
F) Entorhinal Cortex
G) Reticular Formation
G; Reticular formation found in brainstem
What are the different nuclei found in the brainstem? What are their respective functions?
--The brainstem also contains nuclei involved in essential automatic processes, including breathing and nuclei for the control of cardiac, vascular and respiratory function, helping to control heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate.

--It also contains the reticular formation, a group of nuclei located from the upper midbrain to the lower medulla that function in arousal, alertness, sleep and wakefulness, consciousness, and other motor and sensory functions.

--The pons contains the locus coeruleus, which contains the cell bodies of norepinephrine neurons (noradrenergic neurons).

--the midbrain contains the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, two regions that contain dopaminergic neuron cell bodies that contribute to the basal ganglia and are involved in motor control, and motivation and reward pathways.

--The Raphe nuclei, which contain the cell bodies or serotonergic neurons, are located in the midbrain, pons and medulla.
Describe the overall structure of the brainstem. How is this related to its function?
Considered one of the most primitive parts of the human brain, the brainstem (or brain stem) is the structure most important to life.
--In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata.
--The brainstem contains nuclei, which are essential for automatic, reflex, and autonomic functions that are critical for survival, and white matter tracks that connect the forebrain with the cerebellum and spinal cord.
In addition, 10 of the 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves emerge directly from the ____________, with nuclei involved in both somatic motor and sensory functions of the head, face, and neck and in autonomic parasympathetic functions.

A) Amygdala
B) Hippocampus
C) Hypothalamus
D) Brainstem
E) PFC (prefrontal cortex)
F) Entorhinal Cortex
G) Reticular Formation
D; Brainstem
Which nuclei that are part of the brainstem does the following describe?
--The ____________ which contain the cell bodies or serotonergic neurons, are located in the midbrain, pons and medulla.

A) Reticular formation
B) Locus Coeruleus
C) Substantia Nigra
D) Ventral Tegmental
E) Both the Substantia Nigra and the Ventral Tegmental
F) Raphe Nuclei
F
--The Raphe nuclei, which contain the cell bodies or serotonergic neurons, are located in the midbrain, pons and medulla.
Which nuclei that are part of the brainstem does the following describe?
a group of nuclei located from the upper midbrain to the lower medulla that function in arousal, alertness, sleep and wakefulness, consciousness, and other motor and sensory functions.

A) Reticular formation
B) Locus Coeruleus
C) Substantia Nigra
D) Ventral Tegmental
E) Both the Substantia Nigra and the Ventral Tegmental
F) Raphe Nuclei
A; Reticular FOrmation
Which nuclei that are part of the brainstem does the following describe? Where is it found????

contains the _____________ which contains the cell bodies of norepinephrine neurons (noradrenergic neurons).

A) Reticular formation
B) Locus Coeruleus
C) Substantia Nigra
D) Ventral Tegmental
E) Both the Substantia Nigra and the Ventral Tegmental
F) Raphe Nuclei
Found in the Pons; B; Locus Coeruleus
Which nuclei that are part of the brainstem does the following describe? Where is it found????

contains the _____________ region(s) that contain dopaminergic neuron cell bodies that contribute to the basal ganglia and are involved in motor control, and motivation and reward pathways.

A) Reticular formation
B) Locus Coeruleus
C) Substantia Nigra
D) Ventral Tegmental
E) Both the Substantia Nigra and the Ventral Tegmental
F) Raphe Nuclei
the midbrain contains the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, two regions that contain dopaminergic neuron cell bodies that contribute to the basal ganglia and are involved in motor control, and motivation and reward pathways.

E
What are the divisions, functions, inputs to and outputs from the prefrontal cortex?
--An important role of the frontal lobe is to produce cognitive functions that orchestrate thoughts with the selection of appropriate actions to achieve particular goals.
--The two major areas in the frontal lobe are the motor cortex and the prefrontal cortex. We already covered the motor cortex in Module 13.
--It is the function of the prefrontal cortex to predict outcomes, project future consequences resulting from current activities, work toward a defined goal, make expectations based on actions and evaluate the consequences of a particular course of action, differentiate among conflicting thoughts, determine similarities and differences between things or events, choose between good (or better) and bad (or worse) actions, suppress impulses, and override and control socially unacceptable responses.
--The prefrontal cortex is involved in what are termed executive functions, including attentional control, short-term working memory, self-control and moderation of social behavior, decision making, judgment, planning, reasoning, problem solving, and abstract thinking, as well as the expression of emotion and personality.
--These cognitive functions require the prefrontal cortex but also involve other cortical and subcortical regions as well.
--Though we often think about the prefrontal cortex as mainly involved in the executive functions of decision making and problem solving, it also has major roles in cognitive, behavioral and emotional control.

--The prefrontal cortex can be divided into four main regions (also called domains) and each of these regions consists of particular gyri and sulci, and have specific functions.
--There are two regions in the dorsal prefrontal cortex: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC).
--There are two regions in the ventral prefrontal cortex. One is the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), which is considered anatomically synonymous with the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and will be referred to as the OFC/vmPFC.
--The other is the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC).
--The prefrontal cortex is highly interconnected with much of the brain, including extensive connections with other cortical, subcortical, and brainstem regions.
--The prefrontal cortex receives massive inputs from the somatosensory, visual, and auditory sensory association cortices and also from the thalamus.
--The dorsal prefrontal cortex is especially interconnected with brain regions involved with attention, cognition, and action, whereas
--the ventral prefrontal cortex interconnects with brain regions involved with emotion.

Dorsal Regions:
--The DLPFC has connections with the OFC/vmPFC, thalamus, basal ganglia, hippocampus, and association areas of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
--An important function of the DLPFC is executive functions, such as working memory, decision making, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and abstract reasoning.
--However, the DLPFC is not exclusively responsible for these executive functions.
--All complex mental/cognitive activity requires the additional cortical and subcortical circuits with which the DLPFC is connected.
--The DLPFC is also the highest cortical area that is involved in motor planning, organization and regulation.

--The dmPFC is identified to play a variety of roles including processing a sense of self, integrating social impressions, theory of mind, morality judgments, empathy, decision making, altruism, fear and anxiety information processing, and top-down motor cortex inhibition. The dmPFC also modulates or regulates emotional responses and heart rate in situations of fear or stress and plays a role in long-term memory.

Ventral regions:
--The OFC/vmPFC has direct connections to the thalamus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex of the limbic lobe and are thought to be involved in impulse control and to provide the emotional and reward components to decision making, planned behavior, and memory.
--Other functions include the processing of risk and fear, as it is critical in the regulation of amygdala activity.
--It also plays a role in the inhibition of emotional responses, and in the process of decision making, self control, and the cognitive evaluation of morality.
--The vlPFC is thought to play a critical role in motor inhibition and spatial attention.
--Also, the vlPFC is the end point of the ventral pathway (stream) that brings information about the stimuli's characteristics.

-- Though the ACC is not a part of the prefrontal cortex, the ACC lies in a unique position in the brain, with connections to both the "emotional" limbic system and the "cognitive" prefrontal cortex.
What is the connectome?
A connectome is a comprehensive map of neural connections in the brain, and may be thought of as its "wiring diagram".
--The wires are the axons, and bundles of axons are tracts in the CNS.
--The three types of tracts are the association, commissural and projection tracts.
--More broadly, a connectome would include the mapping of all neural connections within an organism's nervous system.
--The production and study of connectomes, known as connectomics, may range in scale from a detailed map of the full set of neurons and synapses within part or all of the nervous system of an organism to a macro scale description of the functional and structural connectivity between all cortical areas and subcortical structures.
--The term "connectome" is used primarily in scientific efforts to capture, map, and understand the organization of neural interactions within the brain.
--Research has successfully constructed the full connectome of the roundworm C. elegans, and partial connectomes of a mouse retina and mouse primary visual cortex have also been successfully constructed.
--The ultimate goal of connectomics is to map the human brain. This effort is pursued by the Human Connectome Project, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), whose focus is to build a network map of the human brain in healthy, living adults.
What are the 3 types of tracts in a connectome? What is the main goal of connectomics?
--The wires are the axons, and bundles of axons are tracts in the CNS.
--The three types of tracts are the association, commissural and projection tracts.
--The ultimate goal of connectomics is to map the human brain. This effort is pursued by the Human Connectome Project, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), whose focus is to build a network map of the human brain in healthy, living adults.
What are the dorsal regions of the PFC?
Dorsal Regions:
--The DLPFC has connections with the OFC/vmPFC, thalamus, basal ganglia, hippocampus, and association areas of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
--An important function of the DLPFC is executive functions, such as working memory, decision making, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and abstract reasoning.
--However, the DLPFC is not exclusively responsible for these executive functions.
--All complex mental/cognitive activity requires the additional cortical and subcortical circuits with which the DLPFC is connected.
--The DLPFC is also the highest cortical area that is involved in motor planning, organization and regulation.

--The dmPFC is identified to play a variety of roles including processing a sense of self, integrating social impressions, theory of mind, morality judgments, empathy, decision making, altruism, fear and anxiety information processing, and top-down motor cortex inhibition. The dmPFC also modulates or regulates emotional responses and heart rate in situations of fear or stress and plays a role in long-term memory.
What are the ventral regions of the PFC?
Ventral regions:
--The OFC/vmPFC has direct connections to the thalamus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex of the limbic lobe and are thought to be involved in impulse control and to provide the emotional and reward components to decision making, planned behavior, and memory.
--Other functions include the processing of risk and fear, as it is critical in the regulation of amygdala activity.
--It also plays a role in the inhibition of emotional responses, and in the process of decision making, self control, and the cognitive evaluation of morality.
--The vlPFC is thought to play a critical role in motor inhibition and spatial attention.
--Also, the vlPFC is the end point of the ventral pathway (stream) that brings information about the stimuli's characteristics.
Briefly explain how is it possible that the amygdala can be involved in emotional responses, emotional memory and decision making?
The amygdala is highly interconnected with many cortical and subcortical areas of the brain.
--It has reciprocal connections with the thalamus, several regions of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum of the basal ganglia), hypothalamus, and brainstem.

--The amydgala is part of the limbic system and is therefore connected to other parts of the limbic system, a set of structures in the brain that supports emotions, memory and olfaction.

--The amygdala contains separate nuclei that are involved in specific functions.

--Through connection with the hypothalamus and the brainstem, it regulates autonomic and endocrine function in response to emotional stimuli and is involved in emotional behavior.

--Through connections with the hippocampus, it provides emotional content to declarative memory, especially episodic memory.

--Through connections with the nucleus accumbens, it is involved in motivation.

--Through connections with the prefrontal cortex, it is involved in risk and fear assessment, and decision making.
How is the amygdala involved in emotional memories?
--Through reciprocal connections with the hippocampus, it provides emotional content to declarative memory, especially episodic memory.
how is the amygdala involved in emotional responses?
--The amydgala is part of the limbic system and is therefore connected to other parts of the limbic system, a set of structures in the brain that supports emotions, memory and olfaction.

--Through connection with the hypothalamus and the brainstem, it regulates autonomic and endocrine function in response to emotional stimuli and is involved in emotional behavior.
How is the amygdala involved in decision making and motivation?
--Through connections with the nucleus accumbens, it is involved in motivation.

--Through connections with the prefrontal cortex, it is involved in risk and fear assessment, and decision making.
Briefly explain how the hypothalamus can be involved in the direct control of behavior, the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.
The hypothalamus acts as an integrator of life sustaining functions and controls functions that are necessary for survival.

--In order to control and integrate these various functions, the hypothalamus has three major areas of output, controlling the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and behavior.

--The hypothalamus receives inputs from sensory systems about the internal and external environment so that it can detect changes and adjust behavior.

--As part of the limbic system, the hypothalamus receives inputs from the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex, which allows the hypothalamus to contribute to emotional responses and behaviors.

--The hypothalamus is connected to the brainstem and spinal cord, which allows it to control the autonomic nervous system.

--Finally, the hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system by the pituitary gland, which releases hormones into the bloodstream.
--Some hypothalamic neurons extend axons that form the posterior pituitary.
--Other hypothalamic neurons extend axons that release hypothalamic hormones to the anterior pituitary that regulate hormone release from the anterior pituitary.
How is the hypothalamus involved in direct control of behavior?
--The hypothalamus receives inputs from sensory systems about the internal and external environment so that it can detect changes and adjust behavior.

--As part of the limbic system, the hypothalamus receives inputs from the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex, which allows the hypothalamus to contribute to emotional responses and behaviors.
How is the hypothalamus involved in direct control of the ANS?
--The hypothalamus is connected to the brainstem and spinal cord, which allows it to control the autonomic nervous system.
How is the hypothalamus involved ind direct control of the endocrine system?
--Finally, the hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system by the pituitary gland, which releases hormones into the bloodstream.

--Some hypothalamic neurons extend axons that form the posterior pituitary.

--Other hypothalamic neurons extend axons that release hypothalamic hormones to the anterior pituitary that regulate hormone release from the anterior pituitary.
An important role of the frontal lobe is to "produce cognitive functions that orchestrate thoughts with the selection of appropriate actions to achieve particular goals." Briefly, how can the prefrontal cortex accomplish this?
The function of the prefrontal cortex is to predict outcomes, project consequences, set goals, evaluate expectations and consequences, suppress impulses and bad choices, choose between good and bad actions, and evaluate similarities and differences.
--The PFC is critical for executive functions, including working memory, organization and planning, problem solving, impulse and emotional control, and flexible thinking.
--The PFC is composed of four domains, which have specific (and some overlapping) functions.
--Two regions of the dorsal PFC are the dorsolateral PFC and the dorsomedial PFC.
--Two regions of the ventral PFC are the ventromedial PFC and the orbitofrontal PFC.
--The PFC is extensively connected to much of the brain, which includes subcortical, cortical, and brainstem regions.
--It receives input from the sensory association cortices, hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus and specific brainstem nuclei.

--The dorsal PFC is connected to brain regions that are involved in many executive functions including working memory and decision making, attention, action, sense of self and empathy.
--The dorsal PFC has connections to the thalamus, hippocampus, and association areas in the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.

--The ventral PFC is connected to areas that are involved in emotion, processing of risk and fear, decision making, planning and self (impulse) control.
--The ventral PFC is connected to the thalamus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex.
What are the dorsal areas of the PFC? What are the functions of these areas?
--The dorsal PFC is connected to brain regions that are involved in many executive functions including working memory and decision making, attention, action, sense of self and empathy.
--The dorsal PFC has connections to the thalamus, hippocampus, and association areas in the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
What are the ventral areas of the PFC?
--The ventral PFC is connected to areas that are involved in emotion, processing of risk and fear, decision making, planning and self (impulse) control.
--The ventral PFC is connected to the thalamus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex.
What would be the clinical outcome if there was damage to the hippocampus or damage to neurons that normally provide information to the hippocampus? What would be spared? What is the most prevalent clinical disorder that involves dysfunction the hippocampus?
--The hippocampus is important for encoding long-term declarative and spatial memory and transmitting memories to other cortical regions for long-term memory storage.
--It is also important for spatial navigation. --Declarative memories include both semantic (fact-based) and episodic (experience based) memory.
--Therefore, the formation of new long-term declarative (semantic and episodic) memories and spatial cognition would be impaired is there was damage to the hippocampus.
--Short term memory and implicit/nondeclarative memory such as procedural memory would be spared.
--The most prevalent clinical disorder that involves dysfunction of the hippocampus is Alzheimer's Disease.
Provide a brief explanation for how the prefrontal cortex may have evolved during evolution.
The general neocortex architecture hasn't changed substantially since it evolved.
--All mammals have similar neocortex cytoarchitecture, with about the same relative thickness, six layers with similar ratios of neurons, inputs and outputs in each layer, and similar general regions of sensory, association and motor cortex. (That said, primate neocortex is denser (more neurons and synapses) and in some places, thicker.) In addition, primates have a much larger PFC than other mammals;
--the PFC is one of the evolutionary newest parts of the brain.

--It appears that the PFC was added as a new region/module to the brain (rather than changing the neocortex cytoarchitecture).
--During brain development, the telencephalon region of the neural tube expands to form the cerebral cortex.
--During evolution, the anterior-most region of the telencephalon may have undergone an additional expansion period to form a new module, forming a new neural tube region that gives rise to the PFC.

--Another possibility is that neural progenitor cells from the frontal lobe region of the telencephalon replicated and migrated to the anterior region to form another ventricular and subventricular zone that gives rise to the PFC.
Briefly describe how neuroplasticity could be involved in depression and the action of antidepressants.
Depression is not just a chemical/neurotransmitter imbalance in the brain.
--Depression has been correlated with structural changes in gray matter and white matter and functional changes in brain activity.
--Structural and functional differences have been observed in limbic brain regions, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and dorsomedial thalamus, and areas of the prefrontal cortex.
--One hypothesis is that neuroplasticity is altered in depression, which could be affected by prolonged stress, anxiety, sadness, loss, negative thoughts, lack of sleep or other medical causes.

--Neuroplasticity is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change, grow, and reorganize in response to events, experience and incoming activity.
--The changes may range from making new connections to cortical remapping.
--People with depression may have reduced neuroplasticity in specific brain circuits. --Antidepressants have been shown to enhance neuroplasticity.
--One potential mechanism for this is by increasing the levels of neurotrophic factors, such as BDNF, which have been shown to increase neuroplasticity.
--This may be why antidepressants take several weeks to be effective since the process of neuroplasticity takes time.
Describe how neuroplascity plays a role in depression.
Depression is not just a chemical/neurotransmitter imbalance in the brain.
--Depression has been correlated with structural changes in gray matter and white matter and functional changes in brain activity.
--Structural and functional differences have been observed in limbic brain regions, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and dorsomedial thalamus, and areas of the prefrontal cortex.
--One hypothesis is that neuroplasticity is altered in depression, which could be affected by prolonged stress, anxiety, sadness, loss, negative thoughts, lack of sleep or other medical causes.

--Neuroplasticity is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change, grow, and reorganize in response to events, experience and incoming activity.
--The changes may range from making new connections to cortical remapping.
--People with depression may have reduced neuroplasticity in specific brain circuits.
Describe how antidepressants can affect neuroplascity
--Neuroplasticity is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change, grow, and reorganize in response to events, experience and incoming activity.
--The changes may range from making new connections to cortical remapping.
--People with depression may have reduced neuroplasticity in specific brain circuits. --Antidepressants have been shown to enhance neuroplasticity.
--One potential mechanism for this is by increasing the levels of neurotrophic factors, such as BDNF, which have been shown to increase neuroplasticity.
--This may be why antidepressants take several weeks to be effective since the process of neuroplasticity takes time.
What is BDNF? What are its functions?
BDNF is a neurotrophic factor that acts on certain neurons, helping to support survival of existing neurons, and encouraging growth and differentiation of new neurons and synapses. --During development BDNF promotes neuronal survival, and stimulates axonal branching, dendritic growth, and refinement of synapses in an activity-dependent manner.
--BDNF promotes the formation of both excitatory and inhibitory synapses and increases their maturation.
--In the adult brain BDNF has been shown to modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity.
What is functional plasticity? How can these changes occur?
Functional plasticity refers to brain's ability to alter and adapt the functional properties of neurons.
--The changes can occur in response to previous activity (activity-dependent plasticity) to acquire memory or in response to malfunction or damage of neurons (reactive plasticity) to compensate a pathological event.

--In reactive plasticity the functions from one part of the brain transfer to another part of the brain based on the demand to produce recovery of behavioral or physiological processes.

--Regarding physiological forms of activity-dependent plasticity, those involving synapses are referred to as synaptic plasticity.
--The strengthening or weakening of synapses that results in an increase or decrease of firing rate of the neurons are called long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), respectively, and they are considered as examples of synaptic plasticity that are associated with memory.
--More recently it has become clearer that synaptic plasticity can be complemented by another form of activity-dependent plasticity involving the intrinsic excitability of neurons, which is referred to as intrinsic plasticity.
--This, as opposed to homeostatic plasticity does not necessarily maintain the overall activity of a neuron within a network but contributes to encoding memories.
What are physiological forms of activity-dependent plasticity?
--Regarding physiological forms of activity-dependent plasticity, those involving synapses are referred to as synaptic plasticity.
--The strengthening or weakening of synapses that results in an increase or decrease of firing rate of the neurons are called long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), respectively, and they are considered as examples of synaptic plasticity that are associated with memory.
--More recently it has become clearer that synaptic plasticity can be complemented by another form of activity-dependent plasticity involving the intrinsic excitability of neurons, which is referred to as intrinsic plasticity.
--This, as opposed to homeostatic plasticity does not necessarily maintain the overall activity of a neuron within a network but contributes to encoding memories.
What is neuroplasticity? What does it result from
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain plasticity, is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganization.
--These changes range from individual neurons making new connections, to systematic adjustments like cortical remapping.
--Examples of neuroplasticity include circuit and network changes that result from learning a new ability, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress.
When does neuroplasticity occur?
Neuroplasticity was once thought by neuroscientists to manifest only during childhood, but research in the latter half of the 20th century showed that many aspects of the brain can be altered (or are "plastic") even through adulthood

--However, the developing brain exhibits a higher degree of plasticity than the adult brain.

--Activity-dependent plasticity can have significant implications for healthy development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage.
What is structural plasticity?
Structural plasticity is often understood as the brain's ability to change its neuronal connections. --New neurons are constantly produced and integrated into the central nervous system throughout the life span based on this type of neuroplasticity.
--Researchers nowadays use multiple cross-sectional imaging methods (i.e. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computerized tomography (CT)) to study the structural alterations of the human brains.
-- This type of neuroplasticity often studies the effect of various internal or external stimuli on the brain's anatomical reorganization.
--The changes of grey matter proportion or the synaptic strength in the brain are considered as examples of structural neuroplasticity.
--Structural neuroplasticity is currently investigated more within the field of neuroscience in current academia.
The changes of grey matter proportion or the synaptic strength in the brain are considered as examples of __________________________.
structural plasticity
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