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Final Exam Comprehensive Study Guide Intro. to Public Health

Terms in this set (257)

In the mid-19th century, what was the single largest cause of death?

The discovery of which of the following allowed medicine to gain the power to work miracles of healing, leading to a period of rapidly growing influence?

What type of prevention seeks to minimize the severity of the illness or the damage due to an injury-causing event once the event has occurred?

Secondary prevention

The mission of ___________ health is the fulfillment of society's interest in ensuring the conditions in which people can be healthy.

As part of the ___________________ function, public health seeks to understand the medical care system in an area of study generally referred to as health policy and management or health administration, which also includes the administration and functioning of the public health system.

Concern about runaway costs, lack of access, and questionable quality of care has led to an increasing interest in studying the medical care system and its effectiveness, efficiency, and equity, leading to a science called health ________________ research.

__________ collects data that serves as diagnostic tools to inform experts on how healthy or sick a society is and where its weaknesses are.

According to Beauchamp, market ____________________ emphasizes individual responsibility, minimal obligation to the common good, and the fundamental freedom to all individuals to be left alone.

The UCS report put pressure on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to promote abstinence-only programs for preventing ____________ pregnancy.

An example of __________ is children and young people can be restricted in their behavior on the basis that they are not yet mature enough to make considered judgments as to their own best interests.

The _____________ omitted an entire climate change section from a major report rather than compromise its credibility by misrepresenting the scientific consensus.

Public health often arouses controversy on moral grounds, most often when it confronts what type of issues?

Sexual and reproductive issues

In 2003, what publication reported that the National Cancer Institute's website contained information suggesting that having an abortion increased a woman's risk of breast cancer?

The Bush administration especially sought to suppress information and to discredit scientific evidence regarding which of the following issues?

The Constitution, in the _____________________, includes among the fundamental purposes of government, "to promote the general welfare."

Congress removed the financial penalty for lack of motorcycle helmet laws in _________.

As recently as the late 19th century, milk was commonly watered down, then doctored with __________________ to make it look normal.

chalk or plaster of Paris

____________ discusses new infectious diseases that occur naturally as well as potential bio-terrorist threats.

The journal of Emerging Infectious Diseases

Which of the following is the nation's leading spokesperson on matters of public health?

Surgeon General of the United States

The first published report that heralded the onset of the AIDS epidemic appeared in what publication on June 4, 1981?

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report

What agency has often been attacked by Congress and often had its policies watered down by the George W. Bush administration?

Environmental Protection Agency

Epidemiology is used to perform what function of public health?

Cryptosporidiosis was added to the national list of notifiable diseases in 1995 after a widespread outbreak in which American city?

The eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome outbreak resembled an illness with similar symptoms that affected some 20,000 people in Spain as a result of what household item being contaminated?

The study on the cholera outbreak that struck London in 1848 was conducted by British physician _____________________, who is known as the father of modern epidemiology.

A county may normally record only a few cases of hepatitis each year; this represents the ______________, or the background level, in a population.

The cholera outbreak occurred in _________ and lasted from 1853 and 1854.

The first major epidemiologic study of a chronic disease was the _____________.

Framingham Heart Study

In defining a disease to be studied, epidemiologists use the term disease broadly, but ________________ is a more accurate but cumbersome description of what is to be studied.

Health outcomes

A group that is exposed to the intervention is called the _________ group.

__________ studies are the most convincing type of clinical trials.

Randomized double-blind

Information on the distribution of disease gives clues about the ____________________ of disease.

When calculating the rate of a disease, which of the following is generally the denominator of the calculation?

Population at risk

Which of the following is calculated by dividing the ratio of exposed subjects to nonexposed subjects in the case group by the ratio of exposed subjects to nonexposed subjects in the control group?

___________ is a systematic error that may be introduced into a study in a number of ways.

The Women's Health Initiative was a _________________________, the gold standard for epidemiologic studies, and thus was much less likely to be subject to bias.

Most epidemiologic studies are ______________________ and have little potential for harm.

The U.S. Public Health Service and scientists from the Tuskegee Institute began similar studies regarding syphilis in the year ___________.

Case-control studies that attempt to determine which of the following are especially subject to recall bias?

Causes of birth defects

Which of the following was used as a treatment for almost any illness by 18th-century physicians?

What surgical procedure was performed on more than half of all children in the 1930s through the 1950s in the belief that the operation prevented rheumatic fever?

The numbers that describe the health of populations and the science that helps to interpret those numbers is referred to as _____________________.

For most public health screening programs, ___________________ tests are desirable in order to avoid missing any individual with a serious disease who could be helped by some intervention.

_____________ identifies events and exposures that may be harmful to humans and estimates the probabilities of their occurrence as well as the extent of harm they may cause.

Risks assessment

In _________ the states of Illinois and Louisiana mandated premarital screening for HIV.

Which of the following expresses the probability that the observed result could have occurred by chance alone?

If an experiment was repeated 100 times and got the same answer 95 times but got a different answer 5 times, what is the p-value of this experiment?

An unusual concentration of some kind of cancer, such as childhood leukemia, that alarms everyone in the community is referred to as which of the following?

_______________________ are a vital part of the public health's assessment function and are used to identify special risk groups, to detect new health threats, to plan public health programs and evaluate their successes, and to prepare government budgets.

In the past decades, many states have added a question regarding the mother's use of _______________ to the birth certificate.

The ________ is part of the Department of Commerce and collects data regarding the American population.

US Census Bureau

The ____________ carries out surveillance for health hazards in the environment, including air pollutants and releases of toxic chemicals.

Which of the following is an important public health issue, causing the NCHS to set up a special computer system that links vital records of infants born during a given year who died before their first birthday?

Infant mortality

The Census Bureau decided against which of the following categories but allowed individuals to check more than one racial category for themselves?

In an attempt to make the collection of detailed information more efficient and more timely, the Census Bureau in 2005 launched which ongoing survey that collects the same information previously collected on the long form?

American Community Survey

Anthrax (causative agent)

Bacillus anthracis

Botulism (causative agent)

Clostridium botulinum

Brucellosis (causative agent)

Chikungunya virus disease (causative agent)

Mosquito-born virus

Cholera (causative agent)

Vibrio cholerae

Coronavirus disease (causative agent)

Dengue (causative agent)

Mosquito-borne infection

Ebola (causative agent)

Haemorrhagic fever (causative agent)

Various viruses (marburg/ebola)

Hepatitis (causative agent)

Viral hepatitis A-E

HIV/AIDS (causative agent)

Influenza (causative agent)

Lassa fever (causative agent)

Virus from rodent-contacted food or household items

Leptospirosis (causative agent)

Leptospira bacteria

Listerosis (causative agent)

Foodborne bacterial disease

Lyme borreliosis (causative agent)

Bacterial disease from ticks

Measles and rubella (causative agent)

Highly infectious virus

Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (causative agent)

Plague (causative agent)

Bacteria from small animals/fleas

Poliomyelitis (causative agent)

Rabies (causative agent)

Zoonotic disease

Rotavirus (causative agent)

SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) (causative agent)

Viral respiratory disease

Sexually transmitted infections (causative agent)

Bacterial, parasitic, and viral

Tick-borne encephalitis (causative agent)

Virus from ticks

Tuberculosis (causative agent)

Bacterial disease

Tularaemia (causative agent)

Bacterial infection from small mammals, flies, or ticks

Vector-borne and parasitic diseases (causative agent)

Parasitic source of disease

West Nile Virus (causative agent)

Mosquito-borne disease

Zika virus (causative agent)

Virus from mosquitoes

Anthrax (risk factors)

People in contact with animals/animal products

Botulism (risk factors)

Raw food, unsafe food prep and storage

Brucellosis (risk factors)

Mainly infect cattle (sheep/goats); however, infected animals can infect people

Chikungnya virus disease (risk factors)

Africa, Asia, India, and spreading west

Cholera (risk factors)

Infected food/water; lack of social development

Coronavirus disease (risk factors)

Elderly/underlying health conditions at increased risk; republicans

Dengue (risk factors)

Tropical/subtropical regions; urban/semi-urban areas

Ebola (risk factors)

Highly contagious; transmitted by wild animals; West Africa; 2014-2016

Haemorrhagic fever (risk factors)

Hepatitis (risk factors)

People who inject drugs

HIV/AIDS (risk factors)

Black and Hispanic people are disproportionately affected by HIV

Inflenza (risk factors)

Highly contagious, anyone is susceptible; immunocompromised develop worse effects

Lassa fever (risk factors)

Endemic to several West African countries

Leptospirosis (risk factors)

Largely found in tropical and subtropical climates

Listerosis (risk factors)

Pregnant women, elderly, and weakened immune system at risk

Lyme borreliosis (risk factors)

Central Europe at risk

Measles and rubella (risk factors)

Pregnant women, elderly, and weakened immune system at risk (typically found in middle east, primarily Saudi Arabia)

Plague (risk factors)

Most cases in Africa

Poliomyelitis (risk factors)

Young children (under 5) at risk

Rabies (risk factors)

99% of cases are from dog bites; most cases in Africa and Asia: poor and young

Rotavirus (risk factors)

Infants and young children in developing countries

SARS (risk factors)

Elderly and people with weakened immune systems at risk

Sexually transmitted infections (risk factors)

People are at high risk if they have or have had more than one sexual partner

Tick-borne encephalitis (risk factors)

European countries at risk

Tuberculosis (risk factors)

Immunocompromised people are at higher risk of developing disease

Tularaemia (risk factors)

Found primarily in European and Asian countries

Vector-borne and parasitic diseases (risk factors)

Young children, elderly, pregnant women, immunocompromised people

West Nile Virus (risk factors)

Elderly people and immunocompromised are at risk for severe illness

Zika Virus (risk factors)

African and Asian countries at highest risk

Anthrax (cases)

2,000 to 20,000 annual cases

Botulism (cases)

110 cases annually in US

Brucellosis (cases)

500,000 annual cases

Chikungunya virus disease (cases)

100-200 cases annually

Cholera (cases)

1.3-4.0 million cases annually

Coronavirus (cases)

Roughly 240 million cases worldwide

3.6 billion people at risk; 125 endemic countries/territories

Increased number: 3,500 cases in 2020

Haemorrhagic fever (cases)

200-400 cases in Africa, inconsistent annual case numbers

Hepatitis (cases)

15 million are infected with B and 14 million are infected with C (in the European region)

HIV/AIDS (cases)

1.2 million cases in the United States

Influenza (cases)

In U.S., numbers decreased with the COVID-19 pandemic, but typical annual cases reach 10% of world's population

Lassa fever (cases)

100k-300k cases annually with 5,000 deaths

Leptospirosis (cases)

Over 500,000 cases annually

Listerosis (cases)

0.1-10 cases per million people worldwide

Lyme borreliosis (cases)

360,000 cases from Europe over the past two decades

Measles and rubella (cases)

140,000 deaths in 2019

Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (cases)

2,600 cases since 2012, 900 deaths

1,000-2,000 cases annually

Poliomyelitis (cases)

Significant decrease in case number due to vaccination; 175 cases reported in 2019

Only 1-3 U.S. cases, but 59,000 deaths annually worldwide

Rotavirus (cases)

527,000 in 2004, but vaccines and immunizations have decreased case number and mortality

Over 26 million cases reported due to COVID-19 outbreak

Sexually transmitted infections (cases)

20 million annual infections

Tick-borne encephalitis (cases)

5,000 to 12,000 cases annually in Europe

Tuberculosis (cases)

1/3 of the world has latent form; 1/10 infected with active

Tularaemia (cases)

1,500 cases in 2019

Vector-borne and parasitic diseases (cases)

Over 1 billion annual cases with 1 million cases

Zika Virus (cases)

Decreasing number of cases: 15 in 2019 and 1,800 in 2018.

West Nile Virus (cases)

2,600 cases reported in US

When did Andrew Wakefield publish his paper on autism and the MMR vaccine?

What did Andrew Wakefield theorize?

That there was a correlation between an increased incidence of autism and children being given the MMR vaccine.

What happened after Wakefield posted his paper?

The public became increasingly apprehensive towards vaccines, his co-authors and editors abandoned him, etc.

Which of the following is a reason to avoid using fossil fuels as an energy source?

A. Landscape Destruction
B. Water Pollution
C. Greenhouse Gas emissions
D. All of the above

D, All of the above

Which of the following energy sources does not use steam to spin a turbine and create electricity?

Hydroelectric Energy

Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest cities were designed with consideration for the health of their inhabitants.

Neurotoxins may be even more insidious than carcinogens because the damage they do may mimic common aspects of aging.

Until recently, the public health approach has been to focus on economic factors in seeking risk reduction.

The first Earth Day, celebrated in the United States on April 22, ______, marked the beginning of the modern environmental movement with coast-to-coast rallies and teach-ins.

Over the past three decades, evidence has accumulated that even low levels of _______ can slow a child's development and cause learning and behavior problems.

______, "the king of poisons," has been well known as a common means of homicide through the centuries.

In the mid-1890s, the discovery of which of the following aroused great public excitement and led to extensive human exposures before the danger was recognized?

A scandal surrounding medication containing what radioactive material led to the
strengthening of the Food and Drug Administration's power to regulate patent medicines as well as set specific limitations on radioactive materials?

The first emission standards for automobiles were passed in 1965, to take effect with cars of what model year?

most visible form of air pollution

particulate matter

Which of the following is especially harmful to patients with cardiovascular disease, who are more likely to suffer heart attacks when exposed to higher concentrations of the pollutant?

carbon monoxide

The Clean Air Act and its amendments require monitoring and regulation of six common air pollutants called_______________________.

criteria air pollutants

When an area does not meet the air quality standard for one of the criteria pollutants, the EPA may designate it a _____________________ and may impose measures designed to force the area to achieve the standard.

nonattainment area

The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act was established in _________.

A number of studies, including the study of six cities, suggest that the largest particles are the most dangerous because they can invade the body's natural defenses and penetrate deeply into the lungs, becoming a chronic source of irritation

While Americans support most measures to ensure cleaner air, they consistently resist efforts to move them out of their private automobiles.

True or False? The "New Source Review" set standards for newly built power plants and gave strict requirements for changes to existing plants

Each year between 1991 and 2010, the CDC and the EPA recorded an average of how many outbreaks associated with contaminated drinking water?

Discharges from industrial sources are the second major category of point-source pollution and were strictly regulated by which piece of legislation?

Clean Water Act

If coliform bacteria is present in the water supply, what step in the water treatment process has failed?

Until the early 1970s, the federal government was responsible for the quality of the waterways and the purity of the drinking water.

The Safe Drinking Water Act requires pretreatment of industrial wastes that are discharged into sewers.

The general approach to water treatment is directed primarily against__________________ disease, the most common and historically devastating type of waterborne disease.

The 1986 reauthorization of the ___________________ specified 83 contaminants to be regulated by the EPA and set deadlines for action.

Safe Drinking Water Act

The leading cause of water pollution in the United States is _________.

Americans dispose of how much municipal solid waste each year?

250 million tons

Which of the following is the biggest drawback of using sanitary landfills as a method of waste disposal?

takes up too much space

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act requires what type of wastes to be accounted for "from cradle to grave" and there are criminal penalties for those who violate the laws?

hazardous waste

____________________ solid wastes include durable goods, nondurable goods, containers and packaging, food scraps, yard trimmings, and miscellaneous inorganic wastes.

The Fresh Kills landfill on Staten Island has been closed since March of 2001 except for it use to dispose of debris from the ______________________.

World Trade Center

Fifty-three percent of municipal solid wastes as well as wastes from other sources are disposed of in ___________.

__________ provides identification and cleanup of hazardous waste sites.

Superfund legislation

True or False? Until the 1970s, little attention was paid to what was done with the garbage after it was taken away from residential neighborhoods.

True or False? Legal disposal of hazardous wastes is expensive and no one knows how much illegal "midnight dumping" may actually go on today.

True or False? Since only the most serious cases of foodborne diseases are reported, the extent of the problem is unclear.

True or false? For the period 2002 to 2011, fruits and vegetables cause more cases of illness than beef, poultry, and seafood combined.

All foods that have been irradiated are required to be labeled as such.

Because they grow in shallow coastal waters, which are likely to be polluted, which shellfish may carry cholera-related bacteria, hepatitis A virus, and the common Norwalk virus?

oysters & raw clams

What virus is frequently transmitted by food handlers who are careless about hygiene?

Because of budgetary constraints, how often can the FDA inspect food-processing facilities under its jurisdiction?

Uncooked fish used in Japanese dishes such as sashimi and South American ceviche may carry __________________ that are harmful to humans

Regulation of the fish industry, which falls mainly under the jurisdiction of the _________________, is especially difficult because most fish are caught in the wild by independent fishermen in relatively small boats.

Iodine in table salt helps prevent a condition called __________.

All organisms tend to produce more offspring than would be needed to maintain a stable population.

Even if the U.S. borders are sealed, human population growth threatens to change the environment of the entire globe, posing health threats that no one could escape.

In the ____________________, the population expands rapidly past the carrying capacity and then crashes.

Global warming is due to the ____________________, where the energy of sunlight is absorbed by carbon dioxide in the air and turned into heat rather than radiating back into outer space.

Greenhouse effect

Predictions about the Earth's carrying capacity have typically centered on which of the following?

Which of the following, released by microbial activity in the intestines of cattle and in paddy fields where rice is grown, also contributes to the greenhouse effect?

Immunizations against infectious diseases, monitoring of pregnancies, and the provision of "well-baby care" to ensure that children develop normally are all considered to be _____________ care.

In response to increasing evidence that the U.S. health care system was dysfunctional, even the _______________________ endorsed President Obama's efforts to change the system.

American Medical Association

To confirm that they provide high-quality care, health care institutions may seek accreditation by which private organization?

Joint Commission

True or False? The most contentious legal cases have concerned the system's insistence on providing expensive, intrusive, and unwanted treatment to patients whose conditions are judged medically hopeless.

In a ________, patients are required to seek care from participating providers who have agreed to provide services at lower rates.

Preferred Provider Organization

In what state does the law allows health care institutions to withdraw life support when further treatment is judged futile, even against the wishes of the patient as expressed in an advance directive?

The percentage of children who are uninsured has declined to less than 10 percent because of _________________________.

Children's Health Insurance Program

True or False? Each year, the Medicare program pays out more money than it collects in premiums.

True or False? The health status of the American population is poor in international comparison, which is evidence that all the spending on medical care cannot compensate for failures in the public health system.

What percentage of Medicaid beneficiaries are children, their parents, and pregnant women?

_____________________ analysis called attention to the lack of scientific evidence on which doctors and patients base decisions about how various medical conditions should be treated.

Businesses with how many employees that do not provide medical coverage are required to pay an assessment of $2,000 per employee?

The percentage of children who are uninsured has declined to less than 10 percent because of

Children's Health Insurance Program

In a preferred provider organization (PPO), patients are required to?

Seek care from participating providers who have agreed to provide services at lower rates.

Controlled clinical trials are one form of ______________________ research, but there are practical, financial, and ethical barriers that prevent conducting controlled trials aimed at answering many important questions about medical care.

Four years after its "near-death experience," what agency had regained all the funding it lost and its budget has held roughly steady at over twice the original level through 2015?

Agency for Health Care Policy and Research

In a study conducted by Dartmouth researchers, what type of data was used to compare two cohorts of men who live in areas with different practice patterns for screening and treatment?

States began to move _____ recipients into managed care plans in the hope of providing them with higher-quality care and more continuity of care, as well as controlling costs.

In ________, nearly 70 percent of the children had their tonsils removed by the time they were 15 years old.

The __________ was asked to investigate and recommend a strategy that would lead to improvements in quality of care.

Institute of Medicine

True or False? It is clear that the variability in the use of different treatments reflects the degree of uncertainty facing physicians regarding their relative efficacy.

True or False? The evidence suggests that, for many medical conditions, there is only one appropriate response or treatment.

True or False? The rise of preventive medicine contributed to an increasing interest in the measurement of the quality and efficiency, or cost-effectiveness, of medical care.

Which of the following has documented extensive evidence that the delivery of medical care in inequitable and that ethnic and racial minorities may receive poorer quality care than white Americans?

health services research

An experimental vaccine was developed for what disease by injecting beta-amyloid into mice, which stimulated antibodies to the protein and reduced the number of plaques?

Alzheimer's disease

Non-Hispanic whites constituted 80 percent of the older population in 2010, but that proportion is projected to shrink to _______ percent in 2050.

__________________ prevention, such as the use of drugs to treat diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol, has undoubtedly reduced morbidity and mortality in many older people.

The_________ generation is individuals born between 1946 and 1964.

The reduced prevalence of __________________ over the past several decades is partly why the elderly are healthier than they used to be.

True or False? Cardiovascular disease has become more prevalent as deaths from cardiovascular disease have declined.

True or False? Racial differences in health grow smaller in the oldest populations and African Americans who survive to join the oldest-old category have a slightly longer life expectancy than whites of the same age.

True or False? The Institute of Medicine predicts that the current workforce is sufficient to meet the needs of the growing number of the elderly.

Which of the following is the most prevalent cause of eye disease?

Which of the following medical conditions could lead to increased sensitivity to drugs in older people?

impaired renal function

Non-Hispanic whites constituted 80 percent of the older population in 2010, but that proportion is projected to shrink to _______ percent in 2050.

The_________ generation is individuals born between 1946 and 1964.

The reduced prevalence of __________________ over the past several decades is partly why the elderly are healthier than they used to be.

__________________ prevention, such as the use of drugs to treat diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol, has undoubtedly reduced morbidity and mortality in many older people.

True or False? Racial differences in health grow smaller in the oldest populations and African Americans who survive to join the oldest-old category have a slightly longer life expectancy than whites of the same age.

True or False? Cardiovascular disease has become more prevalent as deaths from cardiovascular disease have declined.

True or False? The Institute of Medicine predicts that the current workforce is sufficient to meet the needs of the growing number of the elderly.

Which of the following medical conditions could lead to increased sensitivity to drugs in older people?

impaired renal function

Which of the following is the most prevalent cause of eye disease?

An experimental vaccine was developed for what disease by injecting beta-amyloid into mice, which stimulated antibodies to the protein and reduced the number of plaques?

Alzheimer's disease

A transportation accident that causes a release of radioactive materials would be classified as which of the following?

technological disaster

Which agency was accused of covering up the environmental risk following the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center?

Under President Bush, which agency was incorporated into the U.S. Department of Homeland Security where the focus was on terrorism?

True or False? Most terrorist events fall into the category of technological disasters.

True or False? An unambiguous message to evacuate New Orleans in response to Hurricane Katrina came too close to the time the hurricane struck for it to be acted on by the most vulnerable of the population.

True or False? In the event of an emergency, federal personnel can deliver supplies from the Strategic National Stockpile anywhere in the United States within 8 hours.

Because there was concern the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center might have included biological agents, the ________________________ sent officers to monitor hospital emergency rooms for patients with unusual symptoms.

FEMA had supplied trailers for people whose homes had been destroy during Hurricane Katrina and later it became apparent that the air in these trailers was contaminated with unhealthy levels of ____________________.

The ___________ puts a single person, who has the responsibility for managing and coordinating the response, in charge at the scene.

___________ is the most dreaded of the possible bioterrorism agents.

In 1979, the U.S. Public Health Service adopted ___________________, which requires managers to jointly define a set of measurable goals as a guide to their actions and regularly measures progress toward achieving them.

management by objectives

The publication ____________ prompted public health agencies, policy makers, and academic institutions to initiate a national discussion on the role of public health and the steps necessary to strengthen its capacity to fulfill its role.

The Future of Public Health

President Obama's reform of the health care system includes incentives for physicians, hospitals, and medical providers to use ______________________ to improve the efficiency and quality of medical care for all American citizens.

health information technology

__________ promises to solve many medical problems with new drugs and procedures that will contribute to the spiraling costs of medical care.

When the results of the first planning cycle were tallied in 1990, the numerical mortality goals were met for three of the four age groups. Which age group still needed to meet its goal?

adolescents and young adults

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