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BY124 Lab Exam 2

Terms in this set (105)

general characteristics of the KINGDOM ANIMALIA
A.All are eukaryotic

B.All are heterotrophic (ingestion)

C.Carbohydrate storage: glycogen

D.Sexual reproduction is the most common means of reproduction (some can reproduce asexually: budding, fragmentation, parthenogenesis)

E.No cell wall
CHARACTERISTICS TO KNOW FOR EACH PHYLUM:
- Body Plan
- Type of Symmetry
- Germ Layers
- Body Cavity
- Segmentation/No Segmentation
BODY PLAN
A. sac
B. tube in tube

2.TYPE OF SYMMETRY
A. asymmetry
B. radial symmetry
C. bilateral symmetry

3. GERM LAYERS
C. diploblast = 2 layers = tissue level organization (ectoderm & endoderm)
D. triploblast = 3 layers = organ level organization (ectoderm, mesoderm, & endoderm)

4. BODY CAVITY
A. acoelomate: no body cavity between gut and outer covering
B. pseudocoelomate:has a body cavity, but not completely lined with mesoderm
C. coelomate: has body cavity, completely lined with mesoderm
KINGDOM ANIMALIAcan be divided into 2 Subkingdoms:
- Parazoa: sponges only
- Eumetazoa: all other animals
Subkingdom Parazoa, Phylum Porifera
- New school of thought is that Phylum Porifera should be split into 2 Phyla, Calcarea & Silicea
- No tissues as such (cellular level of organization)
- No organ systems
- Sac type body plan
- Asymmetrical/No symmetry
- most are hermaphroditic (individual functions as both male and female)
- Filter feeds via the following cell types:
collar cells/choanocytes: have a flagella that drives water past the cell, particles become trapped & get digested inside cells
amoebocytes: cells that wander the mesohyl(jellylike layer between epidermal cells & choanocytes; takes food from choanocytes and distributes it; may also get rid of wastes; can store food

Classification of sponges based on spicules (produced by amoebocytes):
1. Class Calcarea-calcium carbonate spicules
2. Class Hexactinellida-silica spicules
3. Class Demospongiae-spongin spicules

- Reproduce sexually or asexually by budding
- Larvae is ciliated
SUBKINGDOM EUMETAZOA: PHYLUM CNIDARIA Characteristics
- Former name Coelenterata
- Definite tissues
- mesoglea-jellylike layer between epidermis & gastrodermis (Fig. 7.8)
- Radial symmetry
- Nerve nets-noncentralized arrangement of neurons in Cnidaria
- Gastrovascular cavity -area where food is brought in to be digested
- Digestion is extracellular (in gastrovascular cavity) then is taken into the cells (phagocytosis)
- Presence of cnidocytes(specialized cells unique to phylum) that contain a whip-like stinging barb called a nematocyst
- Some may alternate between polyp(sessile stage) and medusa(free swimming) forms
- Has tissue level organization
PHYLUM CNIDARIA: CLASS HYDROZOA
- The organism Obelia(colonial) is typical of the class - - Hydra exists only as polyp and is solitary
- Polyp is main stage of life cycle
- Medusa used for sexual reproduction
- Larva are called planula
PHYLUM CNIDARIA: CLASS SCYPHOZOA
- True jellyfish
- Medusa is dominant stage
PHYLUM CNIDARIA: CLASS CUBOZOA
- known as box jellies and sea wasps
- Chironex fleckeri, a sea wasp, off the coast of northern Australia is one of the deadliest organisms; its sting can kill within minutes
- sea turtles are somewhat immune to their stings, allowing them to eat box cubozoans in large quantities
PHYLUM CNIDARIA: CLASS ANTHOZOA
- Polyp is only stage present
- Includes corals & sea anemones
- skeletons of coral build reefs
- Some have symbiotic relationships with algae (zooxanthellae)
PHYLUM CTENOPHORA
- Common name = comb jellies (so called due to 8 comb rows)
- Radial symmetry
- Largest animal to use cilia for locomotion
- Has tissue level organization
PROTOSTOME VS DEUTEROSTOME
Protostome:
-Blastopore>Mouth first
-Determinate cleavage
-Spiral cleavage
-Mesoderm arises from endoderm (from 2 cells near blastopore which divide)
- Coelom arises from split in solid mesoderm

Deuterostome:
- Blastopore>Anus first (echinoderms, chordates)
- Indeterminate cleavage
- Radian cleavage
- Mesoderm arises from endoderm as pair of pouches from endoderm wall
- Coelom arises as cavity in a pouch of mesoderm
ACOELOMATES; PROTOSTOMIA
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
- Common name = flatworms
- Have a branched gastrovascular cavity
- Digestion is both extracellular & intracellular
- No circulatory or respiratory system
- Excretion is via flame cells in protonephridia
- Has mesoderm (3 germ layers)
- Nerve cords with ganglia
- Tube-in-tube body - Body is dorsal-ventrally flattened
- Acoelomate
- Protostome
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES: CLASS TURBELLARIA
- Includes Planaria
- Mostly free-living
- Has "eyespots" (light-sensitive regions)
- Capable of primitive learning
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES: CLASS TREMATODA
- Common name = flukes
- All members are parasites (either internal or external), usually of vertebrates
- May have complex life cycle with several hosts
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES: CLASS CESTODA
- Common name = tapeworms
- Head region is called scolex
- Has repeating "packets" of reproductive organs called proglottids
- Often has 2 or more hosts
PSEUDOCOELOMATE: PHYLUM ROTIFERA
- Common name = rotifers
- "Wheel" animals
- Cell constant animals (all members of the same species have the same number of cells)
- Once a cell is lost, it is not replaced by mitosis
- Grinding organ called a mastax (used to grind food)
- Can have parthenogenesis (eggs develop without being fertilized by sperm) present
- Looks like a Protist, but is actually a multicellular animal
- Habitats include: fresh & marine water, terrestrial
- Organs present
- Bilateral symmetry
- 3 germ layers
- Tube-in-tube body
PSEUDOCOELOMATE: PHYLUM NEMATODA
- Common name = round worms
- Longitudinal muscles only
- Some free-living; some parasitic
- Habitats include fresh & marine water, soil, plant tissues, tissues & fluids of animals
- Hydrostatic skeleton
- Includes Trichinella, (obtained from undercooked pork; larva encyst in muscle)
- Also includes hookworms, pin worms, & filaria worms (cause of elephantiasis)
- Bilateral symmetry
- Organs present
- 3 germ layers
- Tube-in-tube body
COELOMATE: PHYLUM NEMERTEA
- Common name = proboscis/ribbon worms
- Bilateral symmetry
- Has muscles
- Organs present
- 3 germ layers
- Coelomate (present school of thought)
- Differs from flatworms in 2 major ways:
1. One-way digestive system
2. Simple circulatory system
- Tube-in-tube body
COELOMATE: PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
- 2nd largest of animal phyla (only Arthropoda, containing Insects, has more)
- Found in all habitats
- most have separate sexes; some are hermaphrodites (e.g. some snails)
- Open circulatory system
- Has all major organ systems
- Bilateral symmetry
- Tube-in-tube body
- 3 germ layers
- Organs present
5 CHARACTERISTICS COMMON TO MOST MOLLUSKS:
1.Mantle= a fold of tissue that drapes over the visceral mass
2.Calcium carbonate shell = present in some; may be reduced or absent in others
3.Visceral mass = mass containing most of the internal organs
4.Radula= a A conveyer belt of teeth, used to scrape up food
5.Muscular foot= usually used for movement
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA: CLASS POLYPLACOPHORA
- Common name = chitons
- Shell segmented, animal is not!
- found at intertidal zone; uses radula to scrap off algae for food
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA: CLASS GASTROPODA
- Includes snails, whelks, slugs, & nudibranchs (sea slugs)
- Mantle is highly vascularized for respiration in terrestrial forms
- Torsion (180 twist in organs during development) can be seen
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA: CLASS BIVALVIA
- Includes clams, oysters, scallops, & mussels
- No radula; filter feeders
- has a shell which is divided into 2 halves
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA: CLASS SCAPHOPODA
- Common name = toothshells
- Looks like canine tooth ("vampire" teeth)
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA: CLASS CEPHALOPODA
- Includes octopus, squid, chambered nautilus, cuttlefish
- foot is modified into a siphon, parts of tentacles & head
- Only mollusk with a closed circulatory system
- Complex behavior; capable of learning
- Has a camera type eye (convergent evolution)
- Squid : shell reduced, 10 appendages, head region more triangular
- Octopus: shell absent, 8 appendages, & head region round
- Chambered nautilus: shell coiled & prominent
COELOMATE: PHYLUM ANNELIDA
- Common name = segmented worms
- Each segment contain a distinct organ
- Has both circular & longitudinal muscles
- Has a closed circulatory system; blood contains hemoglobin
- Has a hydrostatic skeleton
- 3 germ layers
- Bilateral symmetry
- Tube-in-tube body
- Habitat: marine & fresh water, soil
PHYLUM ANNELIDA: CLASS OLIGOCHAETA
- Includes earthworms
- Both terrestrial & aquatic forms present
- Helps improve soil texture
- Hermaphroditic
PHYLUM ANNELIDA: CLASS POLYCHAETA
- Includes marine worms & fan worms - Highly vascularized paired appendages (parapodia):
1.used for locomotion
2.used for gas exchange
PHYLUM ANNELIDA: CLASS HIRUDINEA
- Includes leeches
- Most parasitic; rest are carnivores
- Suckers located on both ends
- Mostly fresh water, some moist vegetation
- Some feed on blood:
1. Dissolves/slices hole in skin
2. Secretes anesthetic while making hole
3. Secretes hirudin (blood anticoagulant) into wound
GROUPING ONYCHOPHORA
- common name is velvet worm
- Includes Peripatus
- Organisms have characteristics of both annelids & arthropods; for many years, thought to be "missing link between these 2 phyla
- Current thinking is that they are more than likely a weird arthropod
- Annelid traits:internal segmentation & duplicated organs, no jointed legs
- Arthropod traits:jaws derived from appendages, open circulatory system, respiratory system, cuticle made from chitin
- Tube-in-tube body
- Bilateral symmetry
- 3 germ layer
-Organs present
- Found in humid, tropical regions
COELOMATE: PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
- Largest of all animal phyla (insects belong here); 1,000,000 + species
- Jointed appendages
- Legs modified to perform various functions: feeding, swimming, copulation, defense
- Exoskeleton made of chitin
- Exoskeleton allows for attachment of muscles
- Must molt (shed) its outer layer in order to grow
- Have fused segments
- Open circulatory system
- Hemocoel contains hemolymph (mix of blood & interstitial fluid); coelom reduced
- Excretion: Aquatic organisms use green glands
- Terrestrial organisms use malpighian tubules
- Usually have internal fertilization
- Separate sexes
- Highly developed sense organs & cephalization
- Bilateral symmetry
- 3 germ layers
- Organs present
- Tube-in-tube body
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM TRILOBITOMORPHA
- Common name is "trilobite"
- All extinct
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM CHELICERIFORMES
- Includes horseshoe crabs, arachnids, sea spiders, ticks
- Anterior cephalothorax followed by the abdomen
- 6 pair of appendages (1stpair = chelicerae, 2ndpair = pedipalps, 4 pair = walking legs)
- Chelicerae: pincher-like (claw-like)mouthparts that replace the 1st pair of walking legs
- Pedipalps: 2nd pair of legs which are used in feeding
- Walking legs on cephalothorax
- Respiratory tubes may be in book lungs (arachnids) or tracheal tubes (insects)
- No antennae, most have single lens eye
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM CHELICERIFORMES: Class Merostomata
- Horseshoe crabs
- Most are extinct
- Referred to as "living fossils"
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM CHELICERIFORMES: Class Pycnogonida
- Sea spiders
- Body looks like an anorexic spider
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM CHELICERIFORMES: Class Arachnida
- Includes spiders, ticks, mites, harvestmen, scorpions
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA
- Mandibles modified from front legs
- 1 or 2 pairs of antennae on head along with compound eyes and 3 pair of appendages, modified as mouthparts, including the jaw-like mandibles
- includes millipedes & centipedes
- all are terrestrial
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA: Class Chilopoda
- Includes centipedes
- Carnivorous
- 1 pair of walking legs per segment
- have poison claws on first body segment
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA: Class Diplopoda
- Includes millipedes
- Herbivorous
- 2 pair of walking legs per segment
- among the earliest land animals
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM HEXAPODA
- 3 body regions: head, thorax, & abdomen
- mouthparts modified for chewing, sucking, or lapping
- 3 pairs of legs
- usually 2 pairs of wings
- mostly terrestrial
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM HEXAPODA: Class Insecta
- Mandibles modified from front legs
- 1 or 2 pairs of antennae and compound eyes
- Found in all habitats of the earth (rare in sea)
- Many species evolved in the Cretaceous period along with flowering plants
- 1 pair of antennae & compound eyes
- Mouthparts: pair of mandibles, pair of maxillae, lower lip called labium
- Legs & wings are on thorax
- Structures involved with mating are on abdomen
- Malpighian tubules used for excretion
- Tracheal systems for respiration
- Internal fertilization
- Metamorphosis:
1. Incomplete/gradual: egg-> nymph -> adult (grasshopper)
2. Complete: egg-> larva -> pupa-> adult (butterfly)
Class Insecta: Orders:
Coleoptera
Hymenoptera
Hemiptera
Lepidoptera
Diptera
Orthoptera
Isoptera
Siphonaptera
Homoptera
Blattodea
Phasmatodea
Phtiraptera
Coleoptera=beetles & weevils
Hymenoptera= ants, bees, wasps, hornets
Hemiptera="true" bugs, assassin bugs, bed bugs
Lepidoptera=butterflies & moths
Diptera=true flies, mosquitoes
Orthoptera=grasshoppers, crickets, katydid
Isoptera=termites
Siphonaptera=fleas
Homoptera=cicadas & aphids
Blattodea=cockroaches
Phasmatodea=walking sticks
Phtiraptera=human body louse
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACE
-Crustaceans: crabs, lobsters, shrimp, sow bugs, krill, barnacles, crayfish, Daphnia
- body of two or three parts
- antennae present (crustaceans are the only arthropods with 2 pair)
- chewing mouthparts
- 3 or more pairs of legs
- mostly marine & freshwater
- have appendages on abdomen, unlike insects
DEUTEROSTOMES: PHYLUM BRACHIOPODA
- Common name is "lamp shell"
- One of the lophophorate phyla
- "U" shaped lophophore, bearing tentacles which surrounds the mouth
- Most common animals in the paleozoic seas
- Bilateral symmetry
- Organs present
- 3 germ layers
- Tube-in-tube body
DEUTEROSTOMES: PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
- Adults have radial symmetry; larva have bilateral symmetry
- Have water vascular system used for: feeding, locomotion, respiration, & sensory perception
- Tube feet present
- Nerve ring (ring of nervous cells)
- Ossicles (spines/bumps)forming a calcareous endoskeleton
- Separate sexes
- All marine
- Tube-in-tube body
- 3 germ layers
- Organs present
- Sea stars, sea cucumbers & some others are capable of regeneration
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA: CLASS ASTEROIDEA
- Includes "starfish" (sea stars)
- Star-shaped body - Tube feet on suckers
- mouth directed toward substrate
- capable of arm regeneration
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA: CLASS OPHIUROIDEA
- Includes brittle stars
- Looks like sea star, but body is more slender (anorexic sea star)
- No tube feet on suckers
- long, flexible arms
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA: CLASS ECHINOIDEA
- Includes regular (sea urchins) & irregular (sand dollars) echinoids
- Test (body) is made of many plates which are fused together
- no arms
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA: CLASS HOLOTHUROIDEA
- Includes sea cucumbers
- Soft bodied; spines are generally reduced; no arms
- capable of regeneration
- defense mechanisms include evisceration
- 5 rows of tube feet; tube feet near mouth are modified for feeding
- reduced skeleton
- no spines
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA: CLASS CRINOIDEA
- Includes feather stars & sea lilies
- Oldest & most primitive of echinoderms
- Mouth points upward
DEUTEROSTOME: PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
- Commonly called the "acorn" or "proboscis" worms
- Has gills or pharyngeal gill slits
- Has dorsal nerve cord
- Both of the above characteristics show relationships to chordates
DEUTERSTOME: PHYLUM CHORDATA
1. Has pharyngeal/gill slits
2. Has notochord
3. Has a muscular, post-anal tail & blocks of muscle
4. Dorsal, hollow nerve chord
- Coelomate
- Bilateral symmetry
- Tube-in-tube
- 3 germ layers
- Segmented body
- Organs present
PHYLUM CHORDATA: SUBPHYLUM UROCHORDATA
- Includes tunicates/sea squirts
- Adults are sessile; sac-like body
- Filter feeders
- Gill slits
- Larva have bilateral symmetry with all chordate 4 characteristics
Adults retain only pharyngeal gill slits (lose nerve cord, notochord, & tail)
PHYLUM CHORDATA: SUBPHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA
- Common name is the lancelet
- Amphioxus (or new name Brachiostoma) belongs here
- Filterfeeders
- Pharyngeal gill slits
- Dorsal hollow nerve cord
- Notochord
- Segmentation
- Tail
Adults keep: pharyngeal gill slits, notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord & postanal tail
PHYLUM CHORDATA: SUBPHYLUM CRANIATA
- Includes the vertebrates ("back-boned animals")
- Backbone replaces notochord
- backbone can remain cartilaginous (hagfish & chondrichthyes) or can be calcified (all other vertebrates)
- Segmentation seen in muscles & vertebrae
- Gill slits are retained in some adult forms; others have modified the slits into different structures
- Tail is present in some classes, but only present during the embryonic stage in others; retention of juvenile characteristics as an adult is called neoteny or paedomorphosis
GROUPING PISCES: CLASS MYXINI
- Common name = hagfish
- Is unknown as a "jawless"fish
- Feeds mainly on detritus
- Has cartilaginous skeleton
- 2 chambered heart
- all marine
- defense mechanism is to produce copious amounts of slime (several liters in less than a minute)
GROUPING PISCES: CLASS Petromyzontida
- Common name = lamprey
- Also known as a "jawless fish"
- Parasitic
- Has cartilaginous skeleton; cartilage is different than that of cartilaginous fishes; contains no collagen, but is a stiff protein matrix
- have a cartilaginous pipe around notochord, with stiff projections (similar to vertebrae) extending dorsally
- 2 chambered heart
- marine & freshwater
- most are parasitic, attacking fish
GROUPING PISCES: CLASS PLACODERMI
- All extinct
- Common name = armored fish
GROUPING PISCES: CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES
- Common name = cartilaginous fish
- Includes the following: sharks skates, rays
- No swim bladder or lungs
- Retain urea in blood to osmoregulate
- Possess a lateral linemicroscopic organs, used to detect water vibrations)
- Teeth are modified scales
- 2 chambered heart
- internal fertilization
- some are oviparous (fem lays eggs; eggs hatch outside the body of mom)
- some are ovoviviparous (fem retains eggs inside body; young are hatched from eggs within the uterus)
GROUPING PISCES: CLASS OSTEICHTHYES
- Common name = bony fish
- Skeleton contains calcium phosphate replaces cartilage during development)
- Possess an operculum(gill covering)
- Some have a swim bladder (arose from lungs) which can be used to adjust their depth
- 2 chambered heart
- Most have external fertilization
CLASS OSTEICHTHYES: SUBCLASS SARCOPTERYGII
- Common name = fleshy-finned fish (lungfish & lobe-finned)
- Includes coelacanths
CLASS OSTEICHTHYES: SUBCLASS ACTINOPTERYGII
- Common name = ray-finned fish
- Most common fish (goldfish, bass, catfish, trout, moray eel)
GROUPING TETRAPODA: CLASS AMPHIBIA
- Carboniferous was "Age of Amphibians"
- Arose from lobe-finned fish
- Have lungs, but also use moist skin for gas exchange
- 2 nostrils
- 3 chambered heart
- Reproduction ties them to water; mostly external fertilization
- Some have spermatophores (packets of sperm laid by male which are picked up by females)
- Undergo metamorphosis: egg--> tadpole--> adult
- Neoteny(retaining of juvenile characteristics as an adult) in some salamanders; neotenyis also referred to as paedomorphosis
- Ectothermic (environment dictates body temp, no internal control)
CLASS AMPHIBIA: ORDER ANURA
- Includes frogs and toads
- Frogs have smooth, moist skin
- Toads are "special" frogs that have warty/bumpy dry skin
CLASS AMPHIBIA: ORDER URODELA
- Includes salamanders & newts
- Newts are "special" salamanders with a keeled (like an oar) tail
CLASS AMPHIBIA: ORDER APODA
- Name literally means "without legs"
- Legless amphibian
- Looks worm-like
- Tropical
GROUPING TETRAPODA: CLASS REPTILIA
- Mesozoic was "Age of Reptiles"
- Ectothermic
- 3 chambered heart except crocodiles

- Advanced limbs over amphibians
- Have dry, scaled skin which prevents water loss
- Keratinized skin (provides water proofing)
- Better lungs
- Ribcage to protect internal organs
- Internal fertilization (males developed copulatory organ=penis)
-Amniotic egg
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER CHELONIA
includes turtles & tortoises
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER RHYCHOCEPHALIA
- Common name is "Tuatara"
- Includes Sphenodon(sole survivor of a group of reptiles that otherwise became extinct 100 million years ago)
- Has a "3rd eye" on top of head (has evidence of a retina)
ORDER SQUAMATA
Includes lizards & snakes
ORDER CROCODILIA
- Includes crocodiles, alligators/caimans & gavials
- Crocodiles developed a 4-chamber heart
CLASS AVES
- some researchers place birds in Class Reptilia
- Jurassic was "Age of Birds"
- Arose from thecodonts
- 4 chambered heart
- Air sacs provide higher efficiency for gas exchange
- Endothermic(able to maintain a constant body temp due to heat from metabolism)
- Feathers
- Care for young
- Reptilian characteristics: amniotic egg & scales on legs
CLASS MAMMALIA
- Arose from therapsids
- Cenozoic is "Age of Mammals"
- Has hair made from keratin
- Possess mammary glands
- Sweat glands
- Tooth differentiation
- Well developed brain
- Muscular diaphragm
- 4 chambered heart
- Endothermic
- 3 bones (ossicles)of middle ear: malleus, incus, & stapes
3 Groupings of Mammals
1. Monotremes: primitive mammals that lay eggs

2. Marsupials:gives birth but embryo (immature state) must climb up into pouch to complete development

3. Placentals:advanced mammals, mother nourishes embryo via placenta
MAMMALIAN ORDERS
Monotremata
Marsupialia
Artiodactyla
Carnivora
Cetacea
Chiroptera
Xenarthra
Eulipotyphla
Lagomorpha
Perissodactyla
Primate
Proboscidea
Rodentia
Sirenia
Monotremata:(Platypus, echidna)

Marsupialia:(Kangaroos, opossum)

Artiodactyla:(Sheep, cattle, pigs, deer)

Carnivora:(Cats, dogs, bears, wolves)

Cetacea:(Whales, dolphins)

Chiroptera:(Bats)

Xenarthra:(Sloths, armadillos, anteaters)

Eulipotyphla:(some moles, some shrews)

Lagomorpha:(Rabbits, hares)

Perissodactyla(Horses, zebras, rhinos)

Primates:(Monkeys, lemurs, apes, humans)

Proboscidea:(Elephants)

Rodentia:(Beavers, squirrels, rats, porcupines)

Sirenia:(Sea cows/Manatee)
Pig General External Features
- "even - toed" hooved mammal
- body divided into head, trunk, tail
- trunk = thorax & abdomen separated by diaphragm
- thorax = heart & lungs
- abdomen = digestive, excretory, & reproductive organs
transverse plane
- perpendicular to long axis of body//horizontal
- cranial (head) & caudal (tail) regions
sagittal plane
- longitudinal section separating animal to left & right
- median plane = midline of animal
- medial = structures closer to median plane
- lateral = structures further from median plane
- dorsal = side of body nearest to backbone
- ventral = side of body nearest belly
frontal plane
- longitudinal section divide animal into dorsal & ventral
- proximal = point of reference closer to median plane than another structure
- distal = point of reference farther from body's median plane
- rostral = point closer to tip of nose
Pig Sensory Organs
- eyes
- ears (pinnae)
- External nares (nostrils)
- Vibrissae (whiskers) = tactical sensations. Base of vibrissa attached to sensory nerve, triggered by air movements or physical contact to whisker.
--other vibrissae located above eyes & cheeks, chin
---spatial orientation
-external covering of eyes = upper & lower eyelids & reduced nicitating membrane that moves laterally from medial corner of eye
Feet of the pig
- split hooves derived from keratinized epidermal tissue, protective covering
- reduction in digits(toes) = 1st toe gone, 2nd & 5th reduced, 4th & 3rd carry most weight
- foot elongated & wrist & ankle carried off ground
- digitigrade = (other hooved animals, cats, canines) form of locomotion where heel of each foot is elevated above ground (walking on their toes)
- plantigrade = (humans & other mammals) heel & digits of each foot contact the ground with each step
lower region parts of pig
- umbilical cord = protrude from ventral side of abdomen
---carries nutrients & O2- rich blood to fetus & remove waste & CO2
- anus = located ventral to base of tail. Indigestible material are eliminated/egested from body
- excretion = reserved for reference to elimination of metabolic waste products
- egestion = elimination of digestive contents that cannot be broken down
Female vs. Male External Features
BOTH:
- mammary papillae = 5-6 pairs, arranged in 2 rows along abdominal region on either side of umbilical cord
- urogenital opening

FEMALE:
- mammary papillae = secrete milk during lactation
- urogenital opening = ventral to anus, near base of tail. Reproductive opening & release urine
- genital papilla = short projection, develops into clitoris = send sexual stimulation to brain

MALE:
- mammary papillae = no function
- urogenital opening = ventral surface caudal to umbilical cord. Urine & semen
- penis = not developed, embedded in tissue along abdomen
- scrotum near anus
- testes, deep inside abdominal cavity near kidneys, migrate caudally & descend into scrotum
- sperm sensitive to temp, testes housed outside where temp cooler. Too cold, cremaster muscles retracts muscles closer to body.
salivary glands
- located along lateral surfaces of head beneath connective tissue & skin
- parotid gland = largest, lyging ventral to ear. large triangular gland w/ lobular texture occupy ear, shoulder, upper neck, & angle of lower jaw
- parotid duct = carries digestive enzymes rostrally from parotid gland into oral cavity
- mandibular gland = beneath parotid gland, caudal to angle of jaw, small oval-shaped. Slightly darker color & larger lobules than parotid gland
- sublingual gland = composed of flat, thin, elongated, & finely granulated tissue clinging to mandibular duct along ventral surface of jaw near tongue
- sublingual duct too small to be seen

- all 3 = produce secretions that combine to produce saliva, complex fluids that lubricate food & start digestive reaction.
- amylase = major enzyme released by glands & responsible of starches
Mouth parts
- teeth = capture & hold food & enhance chewing process by reducing food & mixing w/ salivary glands & food slide down digestive tract w/out damaging epithelial lining
- hard palate = roof of mouth, separate oral cavity& nasal cavity
- soft palate = fleshy continuation from hard palate. allow mammals to eat & breathe at same time - makes endothermy possible.
- nasopharnyx = cadual to soft palate, elliptical opening, lead rostrally to external nares
- esophagus opening
- Glottis = opening to larnyx, protected by thin flap of catilage = epiglottis
- Tongue = small bumps near tip & base = papillae, move food into mouth
Beginning of digestion (mouth & stomach)
- mouth = teeth grind food & mixes with secretions of salivary gland
- passed down esophagus to stomach where chemical secretions from stomach lining
- esophagus = narrow tube containing smooth muscle, contracts to push food into stomach
- stomach = underneath dark liver, J-shaped sac, holds large amounts of food, relieves need to eat constantly
- large stomach allows to eat more in a short period & go to safe place to digest
- stomach releases = hydrochloric acid & pepsinogen
- rugae = small folds of smooth muscle lined w/ epithelium in stomach wall, churn food & mix w/ chemicals
Small intestine
- stomach empties in duodenum = 1st part of small intestine
- accessory glands empty digestive fluids into duodenum
- duodenum receives chyme, partially digested food & enzyme mix
- jejunum = 2nd portion, highly convoluted & tightly bound together by mesentery, connective membrane that suspends viscera & binds them together
- absorption (H2O & nutrients) occur along jejunum, & nutrients delivered to circulatory system.
- chyme continues to ileum = more nutrient & H2O absorption (deliver to circulatory via blood vessels)
cecum
small, blind-ended out-pocket of intestine
-- carnivore & omnivore = cecum is small & no major role
--humans, cecum = appendix
-- herbivores = large & fermentation chamber w/ symbiotic bacteria & protozoans = produce cellulase that breaks sown cellulose in plant cell walls & allows access to proteins & carbs in plant cell
= pigs = cecum is moderately reduced b/c omnivore
Liver
- largest organ in abdomen
- produce bile
- Bile = no digestive enzymes, contains bile salts, breakdown fat.
- Bile stored in gallbladder
- Bile released into cystic duct that carries bile to common bile duct & into duodenum
pancreas
- white-yellow, elongated, granular organ imbedded in mesentaries that support stomach
- composed of left lobe & right lobe (runs longitudinal to length of duodenum)
- produces several digestive enzymes & hormones
- digestive enzymes travel through pancreatic duct & empty into duodenum
colon & excretion
colon = water re-absorption
- colon divided into 3 regions = ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon
- spiral colon = transverse portion of colon is wound tightly b/c long
- rectum = distal portion of colon, final site of water reabsorption & feces dehydration
- colon & rectum = conserve H2O, electrolytes, & produce dry feces
- undigested food particles (feces) egested from body via anus in process = defecation
Compare and contrast the structures of arteries and veins
General appearance:
ARTERY: Thick walls with small lumens; rounded
VEINS: Thin walls with large lumens; flattened

Tunica intima (Endothelium) =
ARTERY: thin
VEINS: thin

Tunica media (Elastic Fibers, Smooth Muscle) =
ARTERY: thickest layer
VEINS: thinner than the tunica externa

Tunica externa (Connective Tissue) =
ARTERY: thinner than the tunica media
VEINS: thickest layer
Beginning with the right atrium, trace the flow of blood through the body to the vena cava. Include all of the valves.
Blood enters the heart through two large veins - the posterior (inferior) and the anterior (superior) vena cava - carrying deoxygenated blood from the body into the right atrium.

Blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts to prevent blood flowing backwards into the atrium.

Blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve into the pulmonary artery and flows to the lungs.

The pulmonary vein carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium.

Blood flows from the left atrium into the left ventricle through the open mitral valve. When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts to prevent blood from flowing backwards into the atrium.

Blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve into the aorta and to the rest of the body.
Vessel:
Cranial vena cava
Caudal vena cava
Coronary arteries
Pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins
Left & right axillary veins
Left & right subclavian veins
Left & right subscapular veins
Left & right external jugular veins
Left & right internal jugular veins
Left & right cephalic veins
Left & right maxillary veins
Left & right linguofacial veins
Brachiocephalic trunk
Right subclavian artery
Left subclavian artery
Left & right common carotids
Celiac artery
Cranial mesenteric artery
Left & right renal veins
Left & right renal arteries
Left & right external iliac arteries
Left & right external iliac veins
Umbilical vein
Umbilical artery
Splenic artery
Cranial vena cava: (vein) deoxygenated blood to right atrium for cranial areas

Caudal vena cava: (vein) deoxygenated blood to right atrium for cadual areas

Coronary arteries: blood to heart muscles

Pulmonary arteries: right ventricle to lungs

Pulmonary veins: oxygenated blood to left atrium

Left & right axillary veins: from forelimbs & shoulders to vena cava

Left & right subclavian veins = from forelimbs & upper body

Left & right subscapular veins = from armpit & dumpt into Brachiocephalic trunk

Left & right external jugular veins = neck region to vena cava

Left & right internal jugular veins = from head, alongside trachea, to heart

Left & right cephalic veins = from each forelimb, most cranial

Left & right maxillary veins = return blood from jaw

Left & right linguofacial veins = return blood from face

Brachiocephalic trunk (artery)= upper region of body

Right subclavian artery = to right forelimb & upper body

Left subclavian artery = to left forelimb & upper body

Left & right common carotids (artery) = to head & brain

Celiac artery = stomach, spleen & pancreas

Cranial mesenteric artery = jejunum, ileum, & colon

Left & right renal veins = collect filtered blood from kidney

Left & right renal arteries = supply kidney

Left & right external iliac arteries = upper thigh of each hindlimb

Left & right external iliac veins = upper thigh of each hindlimb

Umbilical vein = oxygen & nutrient-rich blood to fetus

Umbilical artery = deoxygenated blood from fetus to placenta

Splenic artery = oxygenated blood to spleen
arteries vs veins vs capillaries
- arteries = from the heart to supply blood to tissues
- veins = confluence of vessels draining blood from tissues & returning to heart
---no actual exchange b/c walls are too thick
- capillary beds = connecting branches of arteries & veins throughout body transfer dissolved substances between bloodstream & tissues
Heart external anatomy
- pericardial membrane = (thin, surrounding heart) protective sac contains small amt of lubricating fluid to cushion heart
- four-chambered heart delivers blood through pulmonary circuit (from heart to lungs & back) & systemic circuit (heart to rest of body & back), blood (O2 & w/out O2) is completely seperate

Four chambers =
right & left ventricle = pump blood out of heart to lungs & rest of body
right & left auricles = receive blood from body & lungs & pass to ventricles

coronary arteries = (run along heart) supply blood to heart muscle (nutrients & O2)

cranial & caudal vena cavae (veins) = enter heart on right side, bring in deoxygenated blood to right atrium

coronary sinus = (adjacent to juncture of vena cavae & right atrium) sac-like region, returns deoxygenated blood from heart wall to right atrium

pulmonary artery = channels blood from right ventricle through pulmonary arteries to lungs, branches into right & left pulmonary arteries

aorta = large artery leaving cranial aspects of the left ventricle

ductus arteriosus = short temporary linkage of pulmonary artery & aorta, only in fetus

pulmonary veins = return oxygenated blood to left atrium of heart
Fetal vs Adult Circulation
- connection btw fetus & mammals through umbilical cord, transport nutrients & O2 & rid of CO2 & excess waste

- maternal blood restricted to maternal side, never mixes

- fetus not breathing w/ own lungs, so don't oxygenate blood

- ductus arteriosus = connection btw pulmonary artery & aorta, channels blood into aorta

-foramen ovale = re-routes blood to bypass lungs, opening in septum btw right & left atria, passes from right atrium into left atrium & away from lungs
Veins of Thoracic Region
cranial & cauda vena cava = converge at right atrium, 2 thin-walled veins, return deoxygenated blood to heart '

branchiocephalic vein/trunk = short branch, convergence of 4 veins = internal jugular vein, external jugular vein, cephalic vein, & subclavian vein

internal thoracic vein = from armpit towards vena cava

left & right axillary vein = forelimbs to vena cava

subscapular vein & axillary vein form subclavian vein dumps blood directly into brachiocephalic vein from armpit

cephalic vein = returning blood from each forelimb, most cranial

external jugular vein = neck region to vena canva
internal jugular vein = along trachea from head to heart
jugular vein -> linguofacial vein & maxillary vein = return blood from anterior portion of face & jaw

off of aorta -> brachiocephalic trunk -> splits into right subclavian artery (carries blood to right forelimb & upper portion) & carotid trunk -> common carotid arteries (carry blood to head & brain) -> external carotid artery (run along masseter) & internal carotid artery (embeds underneath masseter) -> axillary artery, continuation of right subclavian (blood to armpit & shoulder region) -> internal thoracic artery (towards ribs)

-> left subclavian artery (carries blood to left forelimb & upper body) -> left axillary artery

dorsal aorta = aorta continues along dorsal body, through diaphragm into abdominal cavity
Heart (internal anatomy)
valves = prevent back flow of blood from ventricles into atria
tricuspid valve = (juncture of right atrium & right ventricle) as right ventricle contracts, pushes blood out, some blood forced back to valve, preventing flow back to right atrium
pulmonary semilunar valve = enter pulmonary trunk, blood passes through htis valve & prevents backflow to right ventricle
bicuspid/mitral valve = blood returns from lungs to left atrium via pulomnary vein & flows to left ventricle through this valve
aortic semilunar valve = regulates blood leaving left ventricle & entering aorta
chordae tendineae = small. string-like attachments prevent valves from prolapsing (pushing too far back)
hepatic portal system
hepatic portal system = shunt blood btw capillary beds of target organs before allowing blood to rest of body
---blood from capillary beds of intestines, spleen, & pancreas diverted to liver by hepatic portal vein
---allow blood to be filtered of its sugars & toxins
Umbilical Cord
umbilical vein = carries O2 & nutrient-rich blood to fetus from fetal side of placenta
umbilical arteries = deoxygenated to placenta
allantoic stalk = urine collected in bladder passes through here & into allantois
The Spleen
spleen = vascular, ductless organ
--RBC have finite lifespan, spleen stores new RBC & regulates body's total blood volume & conc. & manufactures WBCfor immunity & recycles worn-out cells
Arteries & Veins of Abdominal Region (all branch from aorta)
celiac artery = aorta branch supplying stomach, spleen, pancreas
cranial mesenteric artery = supply jejunum, ileum, colon
---arterial arcades = embedded in intestinal mesentery, numerous branches of mesenteric artery, provide O2 & nutrients to intestinal tract tissues

- dorsal aorta to kidneys = renal arteries
---renal veins = thinner walled & filtered blood from kidney to heart
-caudal mesenteric artery = single vessel, supplies to colon & rectum
gential arteries = ovaries or testes
genital veins = direct blood into vena cava

external iliac arteries & veins = upper thigh of each hindlimb (legs) -> fermoral arteries & veins = from abdomen into hindlimb --> deep fermoral arteries
*internal iliac arteries & veins& = dorsal to colon
thoracic cavity
trachea = long tube reinforced w/ cartilaginous rings to prevent collapse, main passageway for air from nasopharnyx through larynx (voice box) & into lungs
larynx = enlarged, oval-shaped, near end of trachea, allows range of vocalization
-> 1st split = right & left bronchi -> right & left lung -> bronchioles = 2ndary branches -> alveoli = sacs, made of squamous epithelial tissue & surrounded by capillary (O2 picked up & CO2 expelled)
---right lung = 4 lobes (cranial love, medial lobe, caudal lobe, accessory lobe)
---left lung = 2 lobes
---left cranial segment & left medial segment = attached to form common lobe called left apical lobe

diaphragm = thoracic cavity, expand & compress, drawing in fresh air w/ each expansion
Oral Cavity
air in = external nares (nostrils) passes through nasopharnyx -> glottis open -> epiglottis permit air flow (prevent food entering) -> larynx -> trachea

--soft palate - animals w/ no interruption, palate keep airway & food pathway separate - maintain endothermic, high metabolism
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