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Final Part 1 (Units 1-5a)

Terms in this set (373)

Memory
Learning that has persisted over time
encoding
The process of placing information into our brain
storage
The process of retaining information in our brain
Retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage
Sensory memory
Very brief storage of information in the brain (4 second maximum for auditory, 1/2 second for visual)
Short-term memory
Information that is stored in the mind for 20-30 seconds, then is forgotten (unless it is stored in long-term memory)
Long-term memory
Information that is encoded deeply into the brain for future retrieval, minutes or decades later.
Working memory
Information taken from long-term memory that is immediately available and active (like RAM in a computer)
Parallel processing
The process of doing many mental tasks at once
Automatic processing
Unconscious problem solving (e.g. holding a cup of coffee so that it doesn't spill while talking)
Effortful processing
Information that is purposefully placed into long-term memory
Rehearsal
Repeating information over and over in an effort to encode it into long-term memory
Spacing effect
Distributed study or practice are better for long-term memory encoding than "cramming"
Serial position effect
We remember the first and last items in a list better than we remember the middle items
visual encoding
The encoding of visual stimuli into long-term memory
acoustic encoding
The encoding of auditory stimuli into long-term memory (including words or sounds)
semantic encoding
The encoding of meaning into long-term memory
1. Semantic encoding ("it's a type of...")2. Acoustic encoding ("It rhymes with...")3. Visual encoding (It's bolded or italicized)
Place the following three types of encoding in order from most efficient to least efficient for effortful encoding
Imagery
Creating mental pictures of an item; greatly helps long-term memory encoding
Mnemonics
Organizational devices designed to aid imagery in the encoding of information to long-term memory
Long-term potentiation
The strengthening of neural connections which provides a basis for learning
Flashbulb memory
A very clear memory of an emotionally significant event
amnesia
The loss of memory
Implicit memory (aka nondeclarative memory)
Memory of how we do things (e.g. riding a bike, playing an instrument)
Explicit memory (aka declarative memory)
Memory of facts and experiences (e.g. The capital of Maine)
Hippocampus
Neural center located in the limbic system that processes explicit memories for storage.
Recall
Retrieving information not in conscious awareness
Relearning
A measure of the amount of time saved when learning information a second time
Priming
Any object, person or experience that activates an association to a stored memory
Deja Vu
The feeling that you've experienced something before, when you have not
Mood-congruent
Humans have a tendency only to recall memories that are consistent with their current mood
Proactive interference
Disruption of current memory storage because of prior learning
Retroactive interference
Disruption of old memory recall because of new learning
Repression
The unconscious mind's forgetting of emotionally damaging experiences to shield ourselves from them.
Misinformation Effect
Misleading information can influence a person's memory of an event
Source amnesia
Remembering information but attributing it to the wrong source
Cerebellum
The region of the brain that processes implicit memories for storage
Primacy Effect
The tendency to remember the first items in a list
Recency Effect
The tendency to remember only the most recent (last) items in a list
Infantile Amnesia
Memories of events that occur between the ages of 2-4 are typically not remembered later in life
Chunking
A memory strategy in which information is broken down into more manageable pieces (part of the reason that our phone numbers include dashes for the "chunks" of numbers, so that they can be more easily remembered)
Ideal time to learn new skills (e.g. language)
It is significantly easier to learn new skills such as language in childhood. In addition to relative ease of learning, the risk of having an accent is reduced
Whorf Hypothesis (a.k.a. "Linguistic Relativity/Determinism")
The theory that people's worldviews and actions are shaped by the confines of the language that is used
Echoic Memory
Auditory sensory memory - lasts 2-4 seconds. You are able to "parrot" back words that were said 2-4 seconds ago, despite not listening.
Cognition
Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating
Concepts
Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, and people (e.g. "car" includes many types of cars)
Prototype
A mental image of the best approximation of all the traits of a category (e.g. When we think of "bird", we might picture a pigeon instead of a flamingo, penguin or hummingbird)
Algorithm
Step-by-step process of solving a problem - Slower, but more guaranteed
Heuristic
Shortcuts in thinking (automatic process of solving problems) - This process is prone to error
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of events based on how well they seem to represent particular prototypes
Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind
Framing
The way a sentence of structured can affect how a person reacts to it (e.g. "95% success rate" sounds better than "5% failure rate")
Insight
A sudden solution to a problem
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Expertise
A well-developed base of knowledge
Functional fixation
The inability to see the solution to a problem from a unique "outside of the box" perspective
Mental set
The approach to a problem in the way that your brain thinks it "ought" to be done
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to seek out only information that agrees with our preexisting ideas, and ignore contradictory information
Belief Perseverance
Once a person forms an idea, it becomes difficult to persuade them otherwise
Intuition
The automatic process of knowing, without explicit problem solving
Phonemes
The most basic element of language, made up of individual sounds (e.g. "s", "k")
Morphemes
The most basic element of language that carries meaning (e.g. "s" means plural, "ed" means past tense)
Grammar
The system of rules in language
Semantics
Rules that govern the meaning in morphemes
Syntax
Rules governing order in sentences (e.g. Adjectives goes before nouns in English)
Babbling Stage
The stage in language development around 4 months, where the child repeats simple sounds
One-word stage
The stage in language development around 1 year, where the child uses single words to represent objects
Telegraphic Stage/Two-Word Stage
The stage in language development where a create can create simple two word sentences (e.g. "Mommy come")
Phrenology
The belief, started in the 1800s by Franz Gall, that bumps on a person's head revealed aspects of their personality or intelligence.
A cell used in the nervous system to send and receive messages.
Neuron
Sensory Neuron
Neurons that send messages from the body to the brain
Motor Neuron
Neuron that sends messages from the brain to the body
Interneuron
Neurons located in the brain which communicate with other brain neurons
Dendrite
The "arms" branching from the body of a neuron that receive information from other neurons
Cell Body
The body of a cell
Nucleus
The "brain" of the cell, located in the very center of the body
Axon Hillock
The area immediately before the axon that initially begins an action potential
Axon
The long "arm" of a neuron which sends a message (length can range from less than a millimeter, to several feet)
Myelin Sheath
The fatty tissue which insulates the axon
Schwann Cell
The cell that produces the fatty tissue that makes up the myelin sheath
Action Potential
The electro-chemical charge that travels across the axon
Axon Terminal / Terminal Button / Terminal Branches (All words for the same thing)
The "arms" extending at the end of the axon, which send messages to other neurons
Synaptic Gap (or Synaptic Cleft)
The extremely small gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another
Threshold
The minimum electrical stimulation required by the axon hillock to send an action potential
Refractory Period
The period of time after an action potential is sent that the axon is unable to accept another action potential
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter whose main use is movement
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter whose main purpose is mood (have enough, GREAT! - don't have enough? depressed / anxious)
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter - too much? SCHIZOPHRENIA, too little? PARKINSON'S DISEASE
Agonist
Mimics a neurotransmitter well enough to bind to the receptor site and fire
Antagonist
Mimics a neurotransmitter well enough to bind to the receptor site and clog the site, so that actual neurotransmitters can not fire
Reuptake
The process of neurotransmitters going back into the axon terminal from the synapse after "firing"
Reuptake inhibitor
A drug that works by preventing neurotransmitters from reentering the axon terminal from the synapse
Too little serotonin
Oh crap, I am depressed, what happened?
Too much dopamine
Dang, I have schizophrenia, what is going on?
Too little dopamine
I'm all shaky from Parkinson's, what's happening?
Too little Acetylcohline (or presence of ACh (Acetylcholine) antagonist)
I can't move, I'm completely paralyzed, WHAT'S HAPPENING TO ME?!?!
Too much Acetylcohline (or presence of ACh (Acetylcholine) agonist)
I'm moving my body uncontrollably, AAAAAAHHHHHHH!
Receptor Site
The spot on the dendrite where the neurotransmitter "binds"
GABA
Neurotransmitter which primarily sends inhibitory signals (makes the receiving neuron less likely to send an action potential)
GABA
Main neurotransmitter involved with Alcohol
Hormones
The "chemical messengers" of the endocrine system
Epinepherine and Norepinepherine (Adrenaline and Noradrenaline)
Hormone released by the adrenal gland
Nerves
Bundles of connected axons are called:
Central Nervous System
System of nerves (bundled axons) which form the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
System of nerves (bundled axons) which connect to the muscles, glands and sensory receptors
Somatic Nervous System
Part of the nervous system controlled conscious (inside of our control, e.g. moving our hands)
Autonomic Nervous System
Part of the peripheral nervous system which operates unconsciously (out of our control and awareness, e.g. our heartbeat or breathing)
Pituitary Gland
The "master" hormone secreting gland which controls all others
Adrenal Gland
The hormonal gland which secretes epinephrine (adrenaline)
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
Electrodes on head - scan of brain activity, NOT a picture - looks like seismograph
CT (Computed Tomography)
X-Ray of brain (big tube machine)
PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
Radioactive injection, measures radiation to get picture of brain - lights up in areas being used
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Huge magnet (in a big tube machine), alligns cells of brain, then dealligns them and measures disruption energy to get picture of brain
fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Several MRIs in succession, compares differences, and differences in pictures light up - shows brain activity
Brainstem
Top of spinal cord - handles reflexive actions
Medulla
Bottom of brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing
Reticular Formation
Literally means "netlike" formation - inside of brainstem, contains bundles of axons headed to and from the brain
Thalamus
On top of brainstem, "routing area" where axons lead to their cell bodies in the brain
Pons
Middle swelled part of brain stem.
Cerebellum
"little brain" on the bottom of the back of the Cerebrum - controls movement and balance
Cerebrum
"big brain"
Amygdala
In the limbic system, controls aggression and fear
Hypothalamus
In the limbic system, the "reward center" - controls hunger, thirst, reward, sex, etc...
Hippocampus
In the limbic system, controls memory
Pituitary Gland
The "master gland" - controls production of all hormones
Endocrine System
System of glands which secrete hormones
Cerebral cortex
Outer part of the cerebrum - all of the pink "folds" in the brain
Glial cells
Support cells, hold up and protect neurons
Frontal lobe
Lobe on the front of the brain - controls complex thought and reasoning
Parietal lobe
Lobe on the top of the brain - controls sensation
Occipital lobe
Lobe on the back of the brain - controls sight
Temporal lobe
Lobe on the bottom of the brain - controls speech
Motor cortex
Band of tissue across the brain on the parietal lobe which contains all motor neurons
Sensory cortex
Band of tissue across the brain on the parietal lobe which contains all sensory neurons
Sensorimotor cortex
Collection of both sensory and motor cortexes
Association areas
The "rest" of the brain, not counting the sensorimotor cortex.
Broca's area
Section of the brain involved in the production of speech
Broca's aphasia
Problem with the section of the brain involved in the production of speech
Wernicke's area
Section of the brain involved in the interpretation of speech
Wernicke's aphasia
Problem with the section of the brain involved in the interpretation of speech
Corpus Callosum
Band of tissue which connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain
Plasticity
The brain's resilience - it's ability to re-associate cells after damage
Lesion
The surgical destruction, or cut, of brain tissue.
Identical twins
Genetically 100% similar - split from one egg
Fraternal twins
Two eggs, not 100% similar
Nature/Nurture
...
Empiricism
The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
Structuralism
School of psychology that used introspection to explore the mind
Functionalism
School of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes are function in an evolutionary sense
Experimental psychology
The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
Behaviorism
The view that psychology should (1) be an objective science(2) study only behavior, not abstract thoughts
Humanistic Psychology
Branch of psychology that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
Psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes
Biopsychosocial Approach
Integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and sociological levels of analysis
Biological Psychology
Branch of psychology which studies links between biological processes and mental processes
Evolutionary Psychology
Branch of psychology which studies the link between human adaptations to environmental stimuli over time and our current psychological state
Psychodynamic Perspective
The branch of psychology concerned with how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior
Cognitive Psychology
The branch of psychology concerned with mental activities, including thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating
Social-Cultural Psychology
The branch of psychology concerned with how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
Edward Titschener
Psychologist who started the "structuralist" school of psychology
William James
Psychologist who started the "functionalist" school of psychology
Sigmund Freud
Psychologist who started psychoanalysis
Nature/Nurture Debate
The controversial divide over the importance of genetic (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in human traits or behaviors.
Tabula Rasa
Latin for "Blank Slate" - the idea that humans are born without inherent knowledge, that all knowledge is learned
Psychiatrist
Psychologist with a MD that can prescribe drugs
Clinical Psychologist
Psychologist with a PhD that treats individuals with more severe disorders
Counseling Psychologist
Psychologist (typically) with a Master's degree that helps people with their daily functioning or moderate disorders
Psychometrics
Branch of psychology dedicated to the creation, administration, and interpretation of tests
Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologist
Type of psychologist that studies how humans can most efficiently interact and create in a workplace, usually with a masters or PhD level degree
Behavioral Psychology
Branch of psychology that defined the word psychology as "the study of observable behavior"
Wilhelm Wundt
Man who created the first psychology lab
John Watson / B.F. Skinner / Ivan Pavlov
Primary psychologists associated with behavioral psychology
Dualism
The belief that the "mind" (spirit), and body are separate entities, and that after death, the mind continues to exist.
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the one thing that is different in all of your conditions
Dependent Variable
In your experiment, how you measure your group's result
Control Group
In your experiment, the group that does not have the thing that you are studying applied to them.
Experimental Group
In your experiment, the group(s) that do have the thing that you are studying applied to them.
Single Blind
A study where the subjects do not know which condition they are in or the purpose of the experiment, but the experimenter does
Confound
An "accidentally introduced" variable other than the independent variable that can influence the results of your study
Double Blind
When the subject AND the experimenter don't know what condition they are in (or the purpose of the experiment)
Statistical Significance
The mathematical measure of the likelihood that the results of your experiment were found due to your experimental manipulation than due to chance
"alpha"
The given cutoff for "statistical significance" - usually 0.05
Mean
Also known as "average" - You get this number by adding up all numbers in a set and dividing by the amount of numbers in the set.
Median
After arranging a set of numbers from smallest to largest, the middle number in the set.
Mode
The number in a data set that appears most frequently
Range
The difference between the largest and smallest number in a data set
Standard Deviation
A measure of the average difference between numbers in your data set
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two sets of variables (e.g. the relationship between alcohol consumption and reaction time)
CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION
Just because two variables are CORRELATED, that does not mean one causes the other. It simply means that they are associated in some way.
Correlation Score?
Alcohol consumption and reaction time
negative correlation

(example: r=-.4)
Correlation Score?
Hair length and intelligence
zero correlation

(example r=0.0)
Correlation Score?
Studying time and score on test
positive correlation

(example: r=0.5)
Hindsight Bias
The phenomenon that causes things to appear obvious once you know the results. (e.g. Studies have shown that opposites attract - DUH!) (e.g. Studies have shown that people that are similar to one another become attracted to one another - DUH!)
Theory
A tested set of ideas designed to explain a phenomenon
Hypothesis
An "educated guess" typically stated before an experiment is conducted.
Operational Definition
The process of making what you plan to study measurable and quantifiable for the purpose of experimentation
Aggression --> Number of times a person yells
Excitedness --> Heart rate
Intelligence --> Score on the February ACT"
Replication
The process of repeating an experiment in order to ensure that the results of an experiment were not due to chance or experimenter bias/error.
Case Study
A type of study in which only one individual (or a small number) are studied
Naturalistic Observation
A type of study in which groups of people are watched in their natural environment, rather than in a formal experimental setting
Survey
A method of study that asks self-report questions to each participant
Population
The entire set of people that you intend to study (not just the ones that you actually end up studying)
Sample
The group of people that you actually recruit for your study (not the entire group of people of interest)
Scatterplot
A visual representation of a correlation
Experiment
A method of study involving assigning individuals to at least two different groups (conditions) where only one variable is changed between the conditions.
Random Assignment
A method of assigning individuals to conditions in experiments in which each person has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions (you could do this by drawing names out of a hat, or by flipping coins, etc...)
Placebo Effect
If you BELIEVE that something (i.e. a fake drug, or a "magical bracelet") will work, your mind unconsciously will influence your perceptions and actions to make it... work...
Central Tendency
The name of the methods of "averaging" numbers, including mean, median, and mode
Outlier
A number included in your data set that falls far outside the range, and can skew your results
Meta Analysis
A study that combines the findings of many other studies done on a particular subject.
What is the only type of study that finds causality (cause and effect)?
An experiment
In the field of Sensation and Perception, what does "Sensation" mean?
Sensation is the process of gathering sensory information from our environment. (Seeing, hearing, touching, smelling...)
In the field of Sensation and Perception, what does "Perception" mean?
Perception is how we interpret the sensory information we gather from our environment. (recognizing objects or events, judging distance, stereotyping,...)
What is the difference between "bottom up" and "top down" processing
Bottom-up processing *starts* with sensory information and makes sense of the information without preconceived ideas.Top-down processing startsstartsp processing *starts* with sensory information and makes sense of the information without preconceived ideas.Top-down processing *starts* with preconceived ideas that shape how we view our sensory information
Selective Attention
Where our conscious awareness is focused. We can only focus on a very relatively small amount of information at a time.
Cocktail Party Effect
Even in a crowd of people talking, we can successfully shift our attention to a single group of people talking, and listen in on their conversation.
Selective Inattention
We can become consciously "blind" to the information that we are not consciously focused on.
Change Blindness
Change blindness is when a person becomes unaware of changes made to the stimuli around them.
Psychophysics
Psychophysics is a branch of psychology that studies how our mind ("psycho") interprets the physical ("physics") environment around us.
Absolute Threshold
The absolute threshold is the smallest amount of a stimulus that is still detectable 50% of the time.
Signal Detection Theory
Signal Detection Theory states that the absolute threshold depends on our psychological state, and the situation around us. (i.e. it may increase or decrease depending on context)
Subliminal
Any stimulus is presented below the absolute threshold - A stimulus that is present, but consciously undetectable
Supraliminal
A stimulus that is above the absolute threshold
What does it mean if a person is "primed" by subliminal stimuli?
Priming is the unconscious activation of certain associations. (i.e. a person presented with a subliminal picture of Coke may be more likely to select Coke for their next drink)
Difference Threshold
Difference threshold is the absolute threshold for change between two stimuli.
Weber's Law
Weber's Law says that the absolute threshold of any stimuli varies by a percentage of what it is being compared with, not by a fixed amount.
What is Sensory Adaptation, and come up with one example.
Our brains are presented with an overwhelming amount of information - so to deal with it all, we only perceive a very small amount of it, the rest is adapted out. (i.e. you did not feel your shoes on your feet before you read this sentence)
The process of converting light energy into neural impulses is called what?
Visual Transduction
Wavelength (the distance from one wave peak to another over time would be called frequency)
The distance from one wave peak to another
Hue
Our perception of color determined by the wavelength of light is called:
What characteristic of light makes up its intensity?
The height, or amplitude, or each wave determines the light's intensity (low amplitude waves make dim light, whereas high amplitude waves make bright light)
What is the pupil?
The pupil is the section of the front of the eye that allows light to enter. It is surrounded by the iris.
Where is the Iris and what does it do?
The iris is a muscle that is the colored part of the front of the eye. It grows and constricts to allow more or less light into the eye through the pupil
Where is the fovea and what is its purpose
The fovea is the section of the retina in the back of the eye that is in the direct center of our vision. It is especially good at distinguishing detail, and has a very high concentration of cones.
Where is the retina and what does it do?
The retina is the layer of tissue that lines the entire back of the eye. It is made up of light receptor cells (rods, cones, bipolar cells and ganglion cells), and allows light energy to be changed into action potentials that are sent to our brain to allow visual perception.
What is the optic nerve?
The optic nerve is a bundle of axons from the neurons in the retina leading to the visual cortex in the brain.
Why do we have a blind spot?
There is no retina in the area of the back of the eye where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
Where is the lens and what does it do?
The lens is behind the pupil, and can move in and out to focus light rays onto the retina
Accomodation
What is the process by which light rays are being bent by the lens to provide focus?
What are the three characteristics of cones?
Cones are a type of visual receptor located in the retina which are:
* Most active in bright light
* Most prevalent in the center of vision (near the fovea)
* Used in color vision
What are three characteristics of rods?
Rods are a type of visual receptor in the retina of the eye which: * Work best in dim light
* Only perceive black and white
* Most prevalent in peripheral vision
What are the four types of cells that make up the retina?
Rods
Cones
Bipolar Cells
Ganglion Cells

Rods and cones receive the light energy and send signals to the bipolar cells, which send signals to the ganglion cells - the axons of which make up the optic nerve, and send that signal to the occipital lobe of the brain.
Parallel Processing
Our brain interprets many different aspects of vision at once; depth, speed, form, color
How does the Trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz) Theory of Color Vision explain color vision?
The trichromatic theory of color vision says that we have three types of cones, each of which specify in either short, medium, or long wavelengths of light. When we see a particular color, the cones that handle that particular wavelength fire according to how close to their wavelength the color is. The percentage of the cones firing tells our brain which color we see.
According to the Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision, what are the three types of cones?
Short wavelength cones
Medium wavelength cones
Long wavelength cones
How does the Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision help to explain afterimages?
The opponent process theory of color vision says that we have three types of cones that each operate in terms of color opposites. One of these is a red / green cone. When we look at the color green for a very long time, our cone gets tired, and when we look away, instead of stopping firing, it overshoots, and we perceive green for a short time, until the cone finally stops firing.
What are the three opposite pairs of colors used in cells according to the Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision?
Red / Green
Yellow / Blue
White / Black
Audition
The sense or act of hearing
Frequency
The number of wavelengths over time
Pitch
A tone's experienced highness or lowness as determined by its frequency
Decibel
The system of measuring the intensity of sound, where each 10 units represents a tenfold increase in intensity.
Describe the steps in the process where sound waves are converted to brain activity
Sound waves are channeled into the auditory canal in the outer ear
The sound waves vibrate the eardrum
The eardrum transmits those vibrations through a piston made of three parts (hammer anvil stirrup) to the cochlea
The fluid in the cochlea vibrates, which makes the hair cells move
The movement of the hair cells trigger action potentials
The axons of the hair cells are bundled into the auditory nerve
The auditory nerve leads to the auditory cortex in the brain
Name the three bones of the middle ear which are attached to the eardrum
Hammer
Anvil
Stirrup
Auditory Nerve
The name of the bundle of axons that bring sensory information from the hair cells in the cochlea to the auditory cortex of the brain
Cochlea
The name of the spiral fluid-filled canal in the inner ear which contains the hair cells
Pinna
The outer part of the ear that you can see
Place the following terms in order of use as sound waves become neural impulse
Anvil
Auditory Canal
Auditory Cortex
Auditory Nerve
Cochlea
Eardrum
Hair Cells
Hammer
Oval Window
Pinna
Stirrup
Pinna
Auditory Canal
Eardrum
Hammer
Anvil
Stirrup
Oval Window
Cochlea
Hair Cells
Auditory Nerve
Auditory Cortex
What is the part of the ear that is commonly pierced?
Pinna
What are the three bones in the middle ear called?
Hammer - Anvil - Stirrup These three parts transfer sound energy from the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea
Describe Helmholtz' Place Theory of pitch detection
We hear different pitches because hair cells are activated at different places in the chcolea. The higher the pitch, the farther inside the cochlea the hair cell is located
Describe Frequency Theory of pitch detection
Frequency theory states that we hear pitch based on how often neural impulses are fired from the hair cells in the cochlea (e.g. a cell firing at 100 times per second would be a lower pitched noise than a cell firing at 1000 per second)
What are the two broad types of hearing loss?
Conduction Hearing Loss
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
What is the difference between conduction hearing loss and sensorineural hearing loss?
Conduction hearing loss is deafness caused by a problem with the eardrum or associated middle ear bones which do not allow sound waves to vibrate into the cochlea

Sensorineural hearing loss is deafness caused by deterioration of the hair cells within the cochlea
Cochlear Implant
Currently, the only way to restore hearing in individuals with sensorineural hearing loss. Implants electrodes within the cochlea to replicate the damaged hair cells
What is Kinesthesis?
Your sense of the position and movement of your body parts
Vestibular Sense
This sense uses the fluid filled chambers of the inner ear to allow us to know our body's position and movement, and monitors our balance.
What are the two fluid-filled parts of the ear that allow our vestibular sense to function?
semicircular canals &
vestibular sacs
Nocireceptors
The type of receptor that detects pain
According to gate control theory of pain perception, what are the two types of nerve fibers within the spinal cord that will open or close the gate for pain perception, and which is which?
Large Fiber - which help to close the gate for pain perception
Small Fiber - which help to open the gate for pain perception
What are the five types of taste?
Sweet
Salty
Sour
Bitter
Umami
Olfactory Nerve
The bundle of axons which carry information about the smells that we encounter to from our noses to our brain
Olfactory Receptor Cells
Cells that take tiny odorant particles and convert them into neuronal messages
Briefly describe the steps in the process of smell
Tiny particles called odorants float around in the air
These odorants bind to olfactory receptor cells
The olfactory receptor cells send information about the odorants up to the olfactory bulb
The information passes from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory nerve (a bundle of axons from the olfactory receptor cells)
The olfactory nerve sends this information directly to the brain
What are the four gestalt principles of organization?
Similarity
Continuity
Proximity
Closure
In the picture below, we can only perceive either a saxophone player or a face, not both. What does this illustrate?
Figure-Ground Perception
In FGP, you focus on one object (the figure) and everything else becomes the background (ground)
Monocular Cues
The process that allows us to perceive depth either of our eyes alone (not together)
Binocular Cues
The process that allows us to perceive depth using both of our eyes at the same time
Interposition
If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive the blocked object as farther away. Which monocular cue is this?
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more they converge, the more far away they seem.
What are six of the monocular cues used in depth perception?
Relative Height
Relative Size
Interposition
Linear Perspective
Relative Motion
Light and Shadow
Light and Shadow
Monocular cue which sees darker objects as farther away, and lighter objects as closer
Relative Motion
As you are moving, objects that are non-moving appear to move backwards. Those that appear to move faster appear closer than those that move slower.
Relative Height
Monocular cue that allows us to see objects that are higher in our visual field as farther away
Relative Size
Monocular cue which allows us to see larger objects as closer
Perceptual constancy
Allows us to perceive objects as constant in shape and size even when they change size or shape as we move closer and farther to them.
Describe color constancy
Color constancy allows us to perceive colors as the same hue even when they are brought into shadow, bright light, or are even brought into a light of a different color.
Sensory Adaptation
In experiments where humans are given glasses which shift their view 40 degrees to the left, our motions will adapt to this in a short amount of time, and we will properly grab items in front of us. What is this mental change called?
Perceptual Set
Our preconceived notions of what we expect to see that influence how we perceive objects (i.e. Is that a cloud or a UFO?)
What are the three types of ESP?
Telepathy - Sending thoughts to another person without speaking
Clairvoyance - Perceiving remote events (I feel like something bad just happened)
Precognition - Telling the future
What is telekinesis?
Being able to move objects using just your brain
What is the Phi Phenomenon
The ability to see still images presented in rapid succession as movement (e.g. television, or a flipbook)
Consciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Circadian rhythm
Our biological clock that keeps us on (roughly) a 24 hour sleep/wake cycle
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
Small rice-sized part of the hypothalamus that controls our sleep/wake cycle.
Melatonin
Body's naturally occurring sleep-inducing hormone
What are the five stages of sleep, in order?
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
REM
How many minutes (roughly) does it take to cycle through the five stages of sleep?
90 minutes
Sleep stage accompanied by jerky, rapid eye movements
REM
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Device used to measure brain wave activity during sleep
Alpha waves
Brain waves emitted while awake
Hypnagogic Hallucinations
Hallucinations that occur while trying to enter sleep (between Alpha and Stage 1 sleep) Commonly described as being pressed down into your bed, or floating off the bed.
Hypnopompic Hallucinations
Hallucinations that occur immediately after waking (after a full sleep cycle)
Hallucination
Sensory experiences without a sensory stimulus
sleep spindles
Bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity during stage 2 sleep
Delta waves
Large slow brain waves emitted during stage 3 and 4 sleep
Which stage of sleep is the hardest to wake a person from?
Stage 3 and 4 (Delta Waves)
REM Sleep
Stands for "Rapid Eye Movement" - Stage of sleep near the end of the cycle characterized by a rise in heart rate, and rapid "toothed" brain waves, similar to alpha (awake) waves - where dreaming takes place
NREM
The name for all sleep stages except REM
Insomnia
Recurring inability to fall asleep naturally
Narcolepsy
Sleep condition characterized by experiences of extreme overwhelming sleepiness
Night Terror
Sleep condition mostly in children, characterized by periodic episodes of doubled heart and breathing rates, and feelings of terror or dread
Manifest content
The actual content of a dream
Latent Content
The hidden meaning of a dream
Psychoactive drugs
Chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods
Tolerance
Diminishing effects from the same dosage of a drug due to continued use
Withdrawal
Discomfort and distress following discontinuation of an addictive drug
Physical dependence
Physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
Psychological dependence
The intense feeling of needing to use a drug, when the drug does not have any withdrawal symptoms when discontinued
Addiction
Compulsive craving for a substance despite negative consequences
Depressants
Class of drugs that calm neural activity and slow body function, including: alcohol, barbituates (tranquilizers), opiates
Barbituates
Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
Opiates
Class of drug that depresses neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety; includes opium, morphine and heroin
Stimulant
Class of drug that excites neural activity and speeds up body functions (e.g. caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, extacy)
Amphetamines
A stimulant drug that stimulates neural activity, speeds up body functions, and is associated with energy and mood changes
Methamphetamine
An extremely addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, speeds up body functions, and causes energy and mood swings. Causes the release of dopamine, which lowers baseline dopamine levels with continued use.
Nicotine
Addictive drug found in tobacco products
* Arouses the brain
* Increases heart rate and blood pressure
* Relaxes muscles and triggers stress-relieving neurotransmitters
* Reduces circulation to extremities
* Suppresses appetite
Cocaine
Causes the brain to release dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine (causing feelings of euphoria) - lasts for 15 to 30 minutes, followed by a crash.
Ecstacy
"Molly" - Synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Works by causing the release of dopamine, and preventing the reuptake of serotonin. Causes feelings of euphoria and social closeness Causes dehydration, impaired memory, and can harm serotonin producing cells in the body.
Hallucinogens
Class of drugs including LSD and "magic mushrooms" that distort perceptions and cause hallucinations
LSD
"acid" - Developed by a Swedish chemist in 1943 - powerful hallucinogenic drug In addition to hallucinations, can cause feelings of euphoria, detachment, or panic.
Marijuana
Contains the active ingredient THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) Effects are felt in roughly 7 seconds from smoking. Causes feelings of euphoria and may produce mild hallucinations. Does not produce typical tolerance effects. May be linked with an increase risk of developing psychological disorders later in life
Endorphins
Opiate drugs (feel good and pain relieving) which exist and are released naturally in our brain
Dissociation
A split between different levels of consciousness
Learning
A relatively permanent behavior change due to experience
Adaptability
Our capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with changing circumstances
Habituation
A decreasing response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure
Associative Learning
Learning through two or more events that happen together.
Behaviorism
The view that psychology should be studied only through observable behaviors that are objectively quantifiable
John Watson
Founder of Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
Learning through a system of pairing an unrelated stimulus (CS) with a naturally stimulus/response pair. (UCS/UCR)
Operant Conditioning
Using rewards and punishments to increase or decrease behavior.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that automatically (no learning required) triggers a response (e.g. The food that is given to trigger salivation)
Unconditioned Response
The unlearned, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. salivation in response to food)
Neutral Stimulus
Neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not trigger a response. It will become the conditioned stimulus after it is successfully paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that previously did not trigger a response, but presenting immediately before the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a response similar to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. The bell ringing before food is given, which eventually causes the dog to salivate)
Conditioned Response
The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been successfully paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Acquisition
The initial process of pairing the neutral (which becomes conditioned) stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus.
High-Order (AKA Second-Order) Conditioning
The unconditioned stimulus is paired with a new (second) conditioned stimulus - This stimulus will give a similar but weaker response as the original conditioned stimulus
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response due to it no longer being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery
The sudden re-occurrence of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus after extinction due to re-pairing with the unconditioned stimulus
Generalization
If, once conditioning has occurred, a person also reacts to stimuli that are slightly different from the original conditioned stimulus (e.g. Reacting to all small mammals if the original CS was a kitten)
Discrimination
If, once conditioning has occurred, a person only reacts to the specific qualities of the original CS (e.g. If the original CS was a kitten, reacting only to that specific type of kitten, rabbits, or full-grown cats)
Learned Helplessness
If a person (or animal) "gives up" after repeatedly being punished or failing a task, even if they could have succeeded had they tried. (e.g. Stop trying in math class after receiving several failing grades)
Biological Predispositions
Genetic qualities that make it more likely for a person to form associations
UCS: Loud Noise
UCR: Afraid
CS: White Rat
CR: Afraid of white rats
In John Watson and Resalie Rayner's 1920 experiment on baby Albert, what was the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR?
Biological/evolutionary predispositions can influence how easily associations are made (e.g. it is easier for us to pair a negative emotion with spiders than it is for bunnies)
What is the role of biology in associative learning?
The use of operant conditioning (usually positive reinforcement) to train complex behaviors (reinforcing piece-by-piece)
Shaping
B.F.Skinner
The person most closely associated with Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning Chamber - a.k.a. "Skinner Box"
The container used in operant conditioning where animals (often pigeons) were placed to easily and rapidly reinforce their behavior
Primary reinforcer (food, drink, sex, feel-good drugs)
Positive reinforcement that is innately pleasurable
Secondary reinforcer (money, grades, tokens,...)
Positive reinforcement that is reinforcing, because it represents something that is innately pleasurable
Cognitive map
A mental representation of a physical location
Insight
When a solution to a problem presents itself quickly and without warning
intrinsic motivation
The desire to engage in an activity for the sake of its own enjoyment
extrinsic motivation
The desire to engage in an activity in order to obtain an outcome
How is superstitious behavior explained by operant conditioning
Reinforced behavior, even if it is accidental, is more likely to be repeated (e.g. sneezing before scratching off a winning lottery number will likely reinforce sneezing)
What happened in the "Bobo Doll" experiments?
Children watched adults either (1) beat up on, or (2) play nicely with, a inflated clown doll ("Bobo doll"), and played with the doll in a similar way as the adults - the experiment shows Observational Learning
Albert Bandura
Who was the primary experimenter in the "Bobo Doll" experiments?
"Irrational" Fear
Phobia
What are the four combinations of the schedules of reinforcement and what do they mean?
1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval
Fixed = You know when reinforcement will occur
Variable = Reinforcement occurs randomly
Interval = Reinforcement based on time
Ratio = Reinforcement based on action
What are the four combinations of HOW a stimulus is reinforced, and what do they mean?
1. Positive Punishment
2. Positive Reinforcement
3. Negative Punishment
4. Negative Reinforcement
Positive = Added
Negative = Taken Away
Reinforcement = Designed to increase a behavior
Punishment = Designed to decrease a behavior
Continuous
What is the name of the schedule of reinforcement in which a person is rewarded every time they do something?
Three types of ineffective methods of Classical Conditioning
Trace Conditioning = CS - short break - UCS
Simultaneous Conditioning = CS and USC presented at same time
Backwards Conditioning = USC presented before CS
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