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Terms in this set (711)

state of turgor

crispness of fruits and vegetables due to the osmotic pressure of water-filled vacuoles

ripening of fruits and vegetables

protopectin --> pectin (ripe fruit) --> pectic acid (overripe fruit)

ethylene gas

accelerates ripening fo fruits during storage

climacteric fruits

ripen post-harvest (peach, pear, banana, apple tomato)

non-climacteric fruits

best when ripened before harvest (grapes, melon, citrus)

pigments - green (chlorophyll)

1. insoluble in water
2. olive green in acid (pheophytin)
3. bright green in alkaline (chlorophyllin) (mushy: break down of hemicellulose)

pigments - yellow, orange (carotenoids)

1. least affected by changes in pH
2. insoluble in water
3. little effect in acid or alkaline solution
4. lycopenes - antioxidant, phytochemical (tomatoes)

flavanoids - red, blue, purple (anthocyanins)

1. greatly affected by changes in pH
2. soluble in water
3. bright red in acid
4. bluish in alkaline

flavanoids - colorless or yellow to white (anthoxanthins or flavones)

1. soluble in water
2. colorless in acid (bleaching effect)
3. yellow in alkaline or when cooked in an aluminum pan (flavones chelate aluminum)

what prevents enzymatic oxidation?

acid

one dozen oranges yields?

one quart of juice

coulis

a thin puree of fruit of vegetable, sugar and water used as a sauce

potatoes

1. have a phenolic compound that causes color changes in raw, peeled, or bruised potatoes
- green color under skin: due to chlorophyll that develops when potato is exposed to light during storage
- starch changes to sugar during storage (changes in taste, color, texture). old potatoes taste sweeter, cook to a darker brown, and are softer in texture

solanine

harmful, bitter-tasting substance that appears as a greenish color on potatoes that are exposed to light

cooking frozen fruit/veg

shorter cooking time than fresh due to being blanched prior to freezing

blanching

immersion in boiling water for a short period of time

1. glutamic acid found in young vegetables (used in form of salt/MSG)
2. sulfur - onion, cabbage

flavor of fruits

tannins cause astringent feeling in mouth (underripe bananas)

grade A (canned fruits and veg)

desserts, salads (Fancy)

grade B (canned fruits and veg)

processed (choice)

grade C (canned fruits and veg)

puddings, pies (standard)

fresh produce grading

Fancy, extra #1, #1, combination, #2

myofibrils

muscle composed of bundles of fibers

collagen

structural park of tendon that surrounds muscle

collagen is hydrolyzed to ___ and softens in heat

gelatin

elastin

found in ligaments, cartilage; yellow color - resistant to heat, little change in cooking

pork is a good source of

thiamin

fish canned with bones, oysters, shrimp are a good source of

calcium

vitamins and minerals found in meat, poultry, fish, meat alternatives

thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, iron, copper, trace minerals

main contributor to meat color

myoglobin

green colors in meat are due to

further myoglobin breakdown (oxidation)

why does age increase tenderness in meat?

because change in muscle protein brought about by enzymes which increase the water-holding capacity of the muscle

acid (vinegar) and salt increase meat tenderness by

increasing water holding capacity

vacuum packing meat

extends storage life

wholesomeness of meat shown by

round purple stamp "USDA inspected and passed"

safe minimum internal temperatures

1. 145 F meat
2. 160 F ground meat
3. 165 F poultry

nitrites

inhibit botulism, make cured meats pink

dry heat cooking

no water involved, for tender cuts near backbone (loin, sirloin)

fat with highest/lowest smoke point

safflower/butter

carryover cooking

meat continues to cook for about 10 minutes, raising internal temperate 15-25 degrees

limiting AA in soybeans

methionine

histamine toxicity

linked to inadequate refrigeration of tuna, mackerel, mahimahi

nutritive value of egg

80 calories, 6 g protein, 5 g fat, vitamin A, D, riboflavin

egg grading

AA, A, B
- done by candling

egg storage

can be stored in refrigerator at 40-45 F for 3-5 weeks
- when held in fridge too long, there is a loss of CO2, making the egg more alkaline

syneresis (weeping)

liquid released from a coagulated product
- occurs when cooked at too high a temp, or too low a temp for too long a time; creates a tough, watery product

how does an acid stiffen an egg white foam

by tenderizing the protein and allowing it to extend more easily

egg whites at room temperature...

whip more quickly and yield a larger volume due to lower surface tension

lecithin

phospholipid found in egg yolk, helps to stabilize emulsifications

objective measure of quality in custards

the larger the % sag, the more tender the gel

egg substitutes

lower in fat, calories, cholesterol; higher in sodium

vitamins and minerals in milk

good source of calcium, phosphorus, riboflavin, vitamins A, D
LOW in iron and vitamin C

UTH (ultra high temperature)

processing method for milk, aseptically packaged milk can be stored without refrigeration if unopened

vitamin D milk

400 USP units added per quart of milk by feeding the cow vitamin D, irradiating the milk, or adding the vitamin
- must be labeled "vitamin D milk"

brown color of evaporated milk

due to caramelization of lactose in canning

when using buttermilk in place of regular milk

increase amount of baking soda

sweet acidophilus milk

skim milk plus lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria which reduces lactose

kefir

fermented by lactobacillus kefir which reduces lactose

use of milk in food prep

1. when milk is heated, whey precipitates out on the bottom of the pan or on the surface of the milk
2. to prevent curdling, add an acid slowly and agitate
- an acid precipitates casein

oxidative rancidity

uptake of oxygen at a double bond in an unsaturated fat (soybean oil very susceptible)

hydrolytic rancidity

uptake of water
- occurs at room temperature leading to flavor changes in butter (saturated fat)

disodium phosphate

emulsifier; prevents fat separation and add smoothness with manufacturing processed cheese

flour, grain, and cereals are good sources of

vitamin E (germ), thiamin, riboflavin, phosphorus

quick-cooking cereals have ______ added

disodium phosphate

why do wheat flours spoil quickly

due to fat in germ

bread flour

hard wheat, strong gluten, more protein

cake flour

softest wheat, least and weakest gluten, least amount of protein

flours in order of more to least protein

bread, all purpose, pastry, cake

durum wheat

high in gluten

functional properties of gluten

gives elastic properties, forms framework, holds in leavening agent

how is gluten made

from gluten and gliadin through hydration and mixing

adding bran _____ volume of end product

decreases
(b/c bran= heavy, weighs down structure)

old baking powder is more

alkaline, causing a loss of thiamin in baked goods

sugar - hygroscopic

modifies texture by tenderizing
- softens gluten and prevent gluten development by absorbing some of the water that gluten needs

too much sugar in baked good

results in coarse cells, thick walls, a shiny crust and a crumbly product

basic ingredients of quick bread

egg and flour

excess mixing of quick breads

loss of CO2, overdeveloped gluten
- tunnels from top to bottom, tough, heavy product

pastry

flour, fat, liquid, salt
- when using margarine or butter instead of oil or lard, add more (butter and margarine have less fat)

tenderness (baking)

fat cut into very small pieces

flakiness (baking)

fat cut into coarse particles

sponge method

used to mix yeast doughs; causes proofing time (final rise time) is shortened

continuous bread making method

reduces processing time

starch structure

composed of amylose and amylopectin

waxy structures (corn, rice, sorghum) only have

amylopectin

branched fraction

1,4 and 1,6 a glucosidic linkages (amylopectin)

thickening ability of starches in order of efectiveness

potato, waxy corn, waxy rice, waxy sorghum, tapioca, wheat (the more protein, the less effective as a thickener)

gelatinization

the swelling that occurs when starch is heated in water close to the boiling point

role of sugar in gelatinization

1. competes with starch for the water needed for gelatinization
2. increases translucency, reduces viscosity, and gel strength
3. if too much sugar is used, consistency is thin

retrogradation

recrystallization of starch
- hydrogen bonds that hold the gel together break and reform in an orderly crystalline fashion (giving them a gritty texture)
- occurs when there is a high concentration of amylose
- accelerated by freezing
- example: separation when gravy thaws

roux

half fat, half flour

how to get a clear, shiny, translucent white sauce

use cornstarch as a thickener

crystal inhibitors (keep crystals small and smooth)

1. acid (cream of tartar, vinegar)
- sugar and acid combine to promote inversion (hydrolysis) of sucrose
- end products are equal amount of glucose and fructose (invert sugar)
2. fat (chocolate milk)
3. protein (milk, egg whites, gelatin)

invert sugar

equal parts glucose and fructose

overrun

the increase in volume from freezing and whipping ice cream

gelatin is missing which AA

tryptophan
- low in methionine and lysine

bromelain

an enzyme in fresh or frozen pineapple that breaks down protein and prevents gelatinization (inactivated by heat 170-180 F)

papain

proteolytic enzyme from papaya that will prevent gelatinization

FDA approve emulsifiers

monoglycerides, diglycerides, lecithin, disodium phosphate

sorbitol

humectant (retains moisture), sweetener, bulking agent, limits molds

carrageenan

prevents chocolate from sedimenting in fat-free milk

mold inhibitor

propionate, sodium benzoate (soda)

stabilizers/thickeners

pectin, cellulose, gelatin, gum, agar

hedonic rating

scale; facial hedonic (smiling faces)
- affective

affective sensory evaluation of food

used with untrained panelists; determine preference, acceptance or opinions of a product

flavor profile method, descriptive flavor analysis profile (DFAP)

trained panel analyzes and records the aroma and flavor in great detail

penetrometer

tenderness, firmness; baked custards

viscosimeter (viscometer)

measures viscosity of liquids that flow; measures the flow on an incline plane or a rotational basis

line-spread test

measures viscosity of liquids or semi-solid foods that flow on a flat surface

specific gravity

compares lightness of products (egg white foams)

food synergy

The additive influence of food and constituents which when eaten have a beneficial effect on health

isoflavones

phytochemical
- anthoxanthins in soybeans (lowers cholesterol)

"low calorie"

no more than 40 kcal per serving

"low fat"

3 grams or less per serving

"low sodium"

no more than 140 mg Na per serving

"lite, light"

1/3 fewer calories or 50% less fat

"gluten free"

< 20 ppm

"organic"

at least 95% organic products

new food label

vitamin D, potassium, iron, calcium

health claim

based on authoritative statements from a scientific body
"a calcium rich diet may help prevent osteoporosis"

qualified health claim

emerging evidence of a relationship, but not conclusive. requires a disclaimer
"evidence suggests but does not prove that..."

structure function claim

may be used without FDA regulation
"fiber maintains bowel regularity"

middle and upper income adults

goal-oriented; consider activities they can't relate to as a waste of time

lower income adults

interests focus on costs and traditional food habits; oriented toward present and and towards solving current problems

very poor

short term planners

adolescents

relate to their interests; consider peer pressure and attitudes towards authority

elderly

decreased attention span; audience participation to maintain interest; control questions to stay on topic; consider written material

blooms taxonomy

objectives at lower level must be mastered before more complex learning can take place

health belief model

a person must perceive the severity and their susceptibility to the threat for the threat to be a motivating factor

synergy (group decision making)

the groups product (decision) is superior to what the most resourceful individual within the group could have produced by working alone

motivational interviewing

client-centered method for enhancing intrinsic motivation, guides rather than directs, and does not give advice to the client

components of MI

Engaging
Focusing
Evoking
Planning

stages of MI

express empathy
develop discrepancy
roll with resistance
support self efficacy

formative evaluation

made early or during course of education, can change direction
- answers "how should we do it"
- client must be involved; focus group, pre-test, pilot test

summative evaluation

designed at planning stage but conducted at the end
- post-test
- considered final; purpose may be grading, or evaluation of progress

objective test (evaluation strategy)

not well-suited for clinic or community setting (multiple choice)

performance test (evaluation strategy)

client asked to complete tasks based on learning objectives (works well in clinic/community)

NCP (national consumer panel)

data helps manufacturers understand consumer preferences on specific brands; enables retailers to stock the right item assortment for their local markets

appropriation bill

bill approving the spending of money

FTC (federal trade commission)

regulates content of food ads; enforces truth-in-labeling; challenges product claims when product crosses state lines

FCC (federal communications commission)

licenses radio and TV

federal register

notices of public hearings, proposed and final rules, agency decisions, published weekly; lists changes in USDA food programs (most helpful)

advocacy

aggressive form of action; plead cause of a group
- know facts and arguments for and against the issue
- be realistic, usually results in compromise
- lobbying, activities aimed at influencing public officials and legislators

child nutrition reauthorization

covers NSLP, SBP, CACFP, SFSP, SMP, WIC

farm bill

covers national and international nutrition education, research, funding

the older americans act

funds nutrition programs in the community

meta analysis

a formal, define system that combines the results of numerous small studies to increase the strength of belief in the observed effect
- studies are of similar design, have defined inclusion and exclusion criteria, and are published peer-reviewed studies

QUOROM

has proposed quality standards for the review and monitoring of systematic reviews and meta-analysis of randomized trials

PRISMA

-randomized control trials
-evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting systematic reviews & meta-analyses

MOOSE

meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology

CONSORT

common criteria for clinical trials

descriptive research

- describes state of nature at a point in time
- generates hypotheses regarding determinants of a condition or disease
- provides baseline data and monitors changes over time
- establishes associations among factors, but does not allow casual relationships to be determined (doe snot prove cause and effect)

types of descriptive research

1. qualitative research
2. case report, case study or case series
3. surveys
4. correlation studies or ecological studies

correlational studies

compare frequency of events (or disease rates) in different populations with the per capita consumption of certain dietary factors (correlation between fish consumption and breast cancer incidence)

qualitative research (often precedes other research)

1. purpose - explore a phenomenon of interest as a prelude to theory development (what specific characteristics are associated with being an effective counselor)
2. generates narrative data (rather than numerical data or numbers) collected through interviews, observations, questionnaires; may use focus groups (delphi)

case report/case study

report of observations on one subject or more than one subject
- describes quantitatively the experiences of a group of cases with a disease or condition in common
- helps identify variables important to the etiology, care, or outcomes of a particular condition

surveys

research designed to describe and quantify characteristics of a defined population; defined timeframe; pinpoints problems

analytical research

tests hypotheses concerning the effects of specific factors of interest and allows casual associations to be determined (can prove cause and effect)
- includes clinical trials, follow-up studies, case control studies

types of analytical research

experimental model, quasi experimental design, cohort studies, case control studies, cross sectional studies

experimental model

uses experimental and control groups
- experimental group receives the program or treatment
- control group may receive a placebo

hawthorne effect

positive response due to the attention that participants receive

gold standard for clinical nutrition studies

randomized controlled trials

benefits to crossover design

variability is reduces because the measured effect of the intervention is the difference in that participants response to the intervention and control
- allows for a smaller sample size
- although they are generally longer

quasi experimental design

time series: series of measurements at periodic intervals before the program begins and after the program ends
- shows whether measurements before and after the program are a continuation of previous patterns or whether they indicate a noteworthy change

cohort studies

cohort - any group whose members have something in common
- cohort of healthy people followed through time to see fi they develop a specific disease
- sometimes called incidence studies tracking the frequency of new cases (newly diagnosed) of a disease

case control studies

- focus on specific disease
- those with a disease are compared with a group without the disease, but otherwise similar in characteristics
- both groups recall past behaviors, to study how the groups differ

cross-sectional studies/prevalence

- one time data collection counting all of the cases of a specific disease among a group of people at a particular time
- snap shot look at one point in time; describes current, not past or future events

IRB (international review board)

committee established to review and approve research involving human subjects to ensure it is conducted within all ethical and federal guidelines

relevance or validity

ability to measure the phenomenon it intends to measure

ANOVA (analysis of variance)

used when several (three or more) products compete against one another
- tool used to evaluate validity

reliability

consistency or reproducibility of test results

specificity

proportion of non-afflicted identified as non-afflicted

sensitivity

proportion of afflicted individuals who test positive

nominal variable

non-ordered
- variables that fit into a category with no special order (marriage, sex, race)

ordinal variable

ordinal scale
- observations compared with each other that are put in a ranking or scale of some sort

about 2.3 of all observations in a normal distribution lie within _______ SD of the mean

mortality

rate of death

morbidity

state of being diseased

inferential statistics

techniques that allow conclusions to extend beyond an immediate data set; what is the probability that the results can be applied to a larger group; what can you infer from the results of your study

tissue stores of glucose

1. glycogen from muscle and liver
2. fat from adipose tissue
3. cellular mass (protein stores)
4. gluconeogenesis

gluconeogenesis

conversion of non-carbohydrate sources into glucose (from glycerol (fat) and amino acids)

cellular respiration

produces CO2, H2O , ATP

enzymes

proteins, organic catalysts that control reaction

coenzymes for cellular respiration

pantothenic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin

definition of coenzyme

enzyme activators, includes some vitamins

thyroxine

also called thyroid hormone, regulates metabolism and rate of cellular oxidation
- stimulates liver glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis (raises blood sugar)

which age group has the highest BMR

0-2 years

how is BMR measured

protein bound iodine (PBR), measures the activity of the thyroid gland
- when PBR is elevated, so is BMR

RMR

resting metabolic rate, more frequently measured than BMR
- similar outcomes as mifflin

what weight to use with mifflin

ABW ALWAYS

direct calorimetry

measures heat produced in a respiration chamber, limited usefulness

indirect calorimetry

measures oxygen consumed and CO2 excreted using a portable machine

macronutrients RQs

fat - 0.7
carb - 1.0
protein - 0.8
mixed intake - 0.85

what may an RQ of < 7 suggest

underfeeding, use of ketone bodies

what are the polysaccharides

starch, cellulose, pectin, glycogen, dextrin

starch

glucose chains, 50% CHO intake
ONLY YIELDS GLUCOSE

sorbitol physical properties

alcohol from glucose; absorbed more slowly than glucose by passive diffusion; converted into fructose; excess may cause diarrhea

carbohydrates in order of sweetness

fructose, invert sugar, sucrose, glucose, sorbitol, mannitol, galactose, maltose, lactose

essential AAs

phenylalanine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, leucine, lysine

tryptophan is a precursor for

serotonin and niacin

phenylalanine converts to

tyrosine

methionine converts to

cysteine

how much of protein can be converted to glucose

58%

choline

found in most lecithins, a lipotropic factor, which helps prevent the accumulation of fat in the liver

saturated fat

all available bonds of carbon chain are filled with hydrogen; solid and hard at room temperature

unsaturated fat

one or more double bonds
- one double bond = monounsaturated
- two double bonds = polyunsaturated

most polyunsaturated oil

safflower

most unsaturated oil

canola

linoleic acid (omega 6)

essential fatty acid
- lack creates eczema, poor growth rate, petechiae (red, purple skin spots_

if linoleic acid replaces CHO

HDL increased, LDL decreases

best source of linoleic acid

safflower oil

if linoleic acid replaces saturated fat in the diet

total cholesterol decreases, HDL decreases

alpha linolenic acid (omega 3)

critical for retinal function and brain development
- deficiency results in neurological changes (numbness, blurred vision)
- comes mostly from EPA/DHA (fish oil) and walnuts, flaxseed canola
- decreases hepatic production of TG

structure of FAs

the location of the first double bond, counted from the methyl end of the fatty acid, is designated by the omega sign

hydrogenation

reduction process of adding hydrogen (at the double bond) to unsaturated FAs to increase saturation and stability

most saturated and least saturated

coconut oil, canola oil

most monounsaturated and least monounsaturated

olive oil, coconut oil

most polyunsaturated and least polyunsaturated

safflower oil, palm kernel oil

winterized oils

salad dressings; won't crystallize when cold, clear (not cloudy)
- corn, soy, cottonseed oils are winterized

vitamin A precursor

carotene

where are fat soluble vitamins stored

liver and adipose tissue

vitamin A sources

yellow, orange fruits; dark leafy greens; cantaloupe, fish, liver, carrots, fortified skim milk, apricots, sweet potato

nyctalopia

night blindess

xerophthalmia

drying of eye surfaces including the conjunctiva; also known as dry eye

vitamin D precursor

7-dehydrocholesterol, a cholesterol found on the skin

vitamin D sources

sunlight, egg yolk, fortified milk

vitamin E sources

vegetable oils, whole grains, green vegetables, almonds

hemolytic anemia

vitamin E deficiency

where is vitamin K synthesized

large intestine

vitamin K sources

spinach, kale, broccoli, leafy green vegetables

thiamin

increased intake of CHO = increased need for thiamin
- needed in metabolism of pyruvate

thiamin sources

grains, wheat germ , pork, liver

beriberi

thiamin deficiency, characterized by muscle weakness, foot drop, memory loss, tachycardia

riboflavin deficiency

- cheilosis - cracked lips
- angular stomatitis - mouth corner cracks, sore throat
- magenta tongue

riboflavin sources

animal proteins (liver, kidney, meat, milk)

pellagra

the niacin-deficiency disease, characterized by diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and eventually death

folate sources

fortified cereal, liver, kidney, leafy green vegetables, citrus fruits, lentils, beans

B6 (pyridoxine)

increase protein intake = increase need for B6

B6 sources

meat, wheat, corn, yeast, pork, liver, ready-to-eat cereals

pantothenic acid

coenzyme A, energy synthesis of FAs

calcium function

blood clotting, cardiac function, nerve transmission, smooth muscle contractibility

phosphorus sources

meat, milk, poultry, eggs, fish, cheese

most absorbable form of iron

ferrous

what increases the need for magnesium

high protein, calcium, vitamin D

zinc sources

meat, liver, eggs, fish

what decreases zinc absorption

phytates and copper

zinc enhances _____

insulin action

copper is attached to

ceruloplasmin

wilsons disease

genetic condition, copper builds up in liver, brain, and cannot be eliminated properly

what enhances chromium absorption

vitamin C and niacin

as energy expenditure increases, the need for __________, ___________, _________, and ____________ increases

thiamin, niacin, ribloflavin, pantothenic acid

main extracellular cation

Na+

main intracellular cation

K+

anasarca

extreme, generalized edema and widespread swelling of skin due to effusion of fluid into extracellular space
- this is due to drop in albumin (which maintains osmotic pressure)
- seen in heart, liver, renal failure, and extreme protein/calorie malnutrition

indicators of dehydration

nausea, dizziness, sunken eyes, fever, hyperventilation, excessive sweating, concentrated urine, dry inelastic skin, increase BUN, tachycardia, headache, fatigue, decreased appetite, rapid weight loss

weight gain during pregnancy

28-40 # for underweight
25-35 # for normal weight
15-25 # for overweight
11-20 pounds for obese
*target is to achieve lower limit

rate of weight gain during pregnancy