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World History - The Age of Revolutions (Unit 7)

Terms in this set (64)

absolutism
- Political belief that one ruler should hold all the power (absolute monarchies)
divine right of kings
- A king or queen claiming the "authority to rule without limits on their power"
- God puts monarch and he can do anything he desires to, so less likely for citizens to oppose ruler
- Christian concept; church: cannot challenge that power
boyars
- A landowning noble of Russia
- Had too much power so Peter the Great reduced it by promoting men of low rantings & granting them authority & land
Ivan the Terrible IV
- Went into power at very young age (of 3) & constantly disrupted by struggles for power of Russian landowning nobles (boyars)
- Became czar after sized throne when 16: first ruler in Russia to use title of "Caesar" officially
- After his wife Anastasia died, his "bad period" began --> executed many boyars (who he accused on poisoning his wife & considered as traitors), their families & the peasants that worked on their lands
- Land seized from boyars given to new class of nobles--who had to remain loyal or lose their land
Peter the Great
- Increased own powers by becoming an absolute ruler & created many reforms
- Took Russian Orthodox Church into control of the state
- Abolished office of patriarch--church's head
- Set up synod: ran church in direction he wanted
- Gathered army, but since untrained & outdated tactics + weapons, hired European soldiers that drilled tactics + weapons from Europe into his Russian soldiers--part of Westernization
Westernization
- An adoption of the social, political, or economic institutions of Western—especially European and American—countries
- Very influential for Russia: updated the Russian soldiers' tactics + weapons
English Civil War
- A conflict, lasting from 1642 to 1649, in which Puritan supporters of Parliament battled supporters of England's monarchy
- Fought by supporters & opponents of King Charles
- Royalists/Cavaliers: those remained loyal to Charles
- Puritans: supporters of Parliament
Oliver Cromwell
- A Puritan general who was in control of the New Model Army in 1645 and started to defeat the Cavaliers
- Along with the Puritans, brought Charles to trial, found him guilty & sentenced him to death for treason against Parliament (1649); public trial & execution: Charles II was the first one to face his death in such conditions --> revolutionary since never before carried out like so
Restoration
- Period of Charles II's rule
- Called so because he restored the monarchy
habeas corpus
- A law passed by the Parliament during reign of Charles II
- Meaning in Latin: "to have the body"
- Law made in 1679: permitted right for prisoners to obtain a writ or document ordering the prisoner to be brought before a judge to specify the charges against the prisoner; judge: decides if prisoners can go free or be fined for rial
- Hebeas Corpus Act: prisoners could not be held indefinitely without rials & someone cannot be put in jail for opposing a monarch
Glorious Revolution
- The bloodless overthrow of the English king James II and his replacement by William and Mary
- Led to recognition of Parliament as the monarch's partner in governing (as carried out by William & Mary)
geocentric (theory)
- Earth: center view of the universe--in which scholars believed that Earth = immovable object located at the center of the universe in the Middle Ages
- Idea from Aristotle (Greek philosopher) but theory developed by Ptolemy (Greek astronomy)
- Influenced by Christianity since religion taught that God located Earth at a special place
- Changed by the Scientific Revolution
heliocentric (Copernicus)
- Idea hat Earth & other planets revolve around the sun; formed by Copernicus after studying planetary movements for 25+ years
- Although, didn't publish findings until 1543--last year of his life--since knew theory would get rejected by most scholars & clergy for which it contradicted religious views
- Foundations stated in Copernicus's book, which he received a copy of on his deathbed: "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies"
- Influential for several scientists of the Scientific Revolution; led to Brahe's accurate observational datas & Kepler's mathematical discoveries
Johannes Kepler
- Assistant of Tycho Brahe who continued his work; Brahe recorded planets' movements for many years: took accurate datas based on observations of Copernicus's theory
- Concluded mathematical laws of a certain king governs planetary motion upon studying his teachers' data
- One law: planets revolve in elliptical orbits--not circles
- His laws demonstrated basic ideas of Copernicus
Galileo Galilei
- Built on theories about astronomy with telescope he made himself to study the heavens in 1609
- Published book in 1610, Starry Messenger that noted characteristics of planets' moons & etc; Earth's moon: rough, uneven surface where sun's moon: possess dark spots
- Observations & laws of motion: supported Copernicus's theories
- Catholic & Protestant leaders feared people questioning the Church so (in 1616) warned him to not defend Copernicus; did though, continued his studies
- In 1632: published book that presented ideas of Copernicus & Ptolemy --> angered Pope so summoned him to stand trial before the Inquisition in Rome & there, he read signed confession--agreeing that Copernicus's ideas were not true
scientific method
- A logical procedure for gathering information about the natural world; experimentation & observation used to test hypothesis
- Revolution in scientific thinking & new approach to science: developed by Copernicus, Kepler & Galileo
- Starts with problem or questions from an observation --> hypothesis formed by scientists --> tested in experiment or an basis of data --> conclusion (reached by analysis + interpretation of scientists)
Isaac Newton
- Brought breakthroughs of astronomy & physics with a theory of motion
- Published ideas & works in "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"--one of most important science books: included key idea of Newton's discovery & aside from same force ruled planets' + all matters' motion on earth & space: law of universal gravitation
- Law: every object in universe attracts to every object but its degree depends on object's mass + distance between them; described that all parts of universe work together & can be expressed mathematically
universal (natural) laws
- Includes law of logic that is based on universal idea: which is illogical is that which involves a logical contradiction
Thomas Hobbes
- Wrote a novel, called Leviathan
- Convinced by the English Civil War: humans are all wicked and selfish
- Believed that without government to keep order:
"war...of every man against every man" & life --> "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short
- Created social contract, where to gain law & order, people: rights of people in hands of strong ruler
social contract
- The agreement by which people define & limit their individual rights--creating an organized society or government
- Created by Thomas Hobbes
- Became the new idea for the right to govern
natural rights
- Life, liberty and property
- People born equal and free
- Purpose of government: to protect these rights; if government failed to do so, people can overthrow it
- Political philosophy believed by John Locke
- Deep influence on modern thinking, especially democracy--since believe government's power comes from consent of people: inspired struggles for liberty in Europe & Americas
philosophes
- One of a group of social thinkers/critics in France during the Enlightenment
- French word for philosophers
- Believed that people could apply reasons to all aspects of life, just as Newton did to science
- From the core of their beliefs, 5 concepts formed: 1. Reason (where through reason or logical thinking, truth could be discovered), 2. Nature (--if something is natural, then it is also good & reasonable), 3. Happiness (encouraged people to look for joy on earth, not in the afterlife--thinking from the medieval times), 4. Progress (where society & humankind can improve) and 5. Liberty (the English won through Glorious Revolution & Bill of Rights)
reason
- Plays big part in philosophes
Voltaire
- Pen name of François-Marie Arouet--an influential philosophes
- While writing (often with satire), targeted the clergy, aristocracy and government & made enemies in French court: sent to prison twice & exiled to England for 2 years
- Despite powerful enemies, never stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief & freedom of speech
- "I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it."
Montesquieu
- Thought best governed & most important politically balanced country in his day: Britain
- Believed: division of power kept individual or group from gaining total control of government & checks & balances--basis of US constitution
Rousseau
- Passionately committed to freedom of individuals
- Believed only good government: one freely formed by people & guided by "general will" of society (direct democracy)
- Differed from Hobbe's idea
- Idea similar to Locke but much broader democracy"title of nobility demolished
- Inspired many leaders of the French Revolution--who overthrew monarchy in 1789
- Developed progressive ideas about education
Diderot
- Published first volumes of Encyclopedia in 1751: included articles by many leading scholars of France
- A salon (social gathering) hostess helped finance his project
- Views of Enlightenment expressed in articles made French government & Catholic church angry; was banned b/c encouraged revolt, moral corruption, irreligion & unbelief
- Had big part in spreading Enlightenment ideas --> educated people all over Europe: attracted growing literate middle class
Neoclassical
- Relating to a simple, elegant style (based on ideas and themes from ancient Greece and Rome) that characterized the arts in Europe during the late 1700s
- Used by artists & architects
Enlightened despots
- Name means: "absolute ruler"
- The monarchs that embraced new ideas & made reforms that reflected Enlightenment spirit
- Though supported philosophes ideas, didn't plan to give up power
- Had desire to make country stronger and own rules more effective
- Most important ones of Europe: Frederick II of Prussia, Holy Roman Emperor of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia
Versailles
- France
- Location of splendid palace Louis XVI lived in, along with hundreds of selected nobles--11 miles southwest of Paris
- Huge royal courtyard with a statue of Louis XVI
- Large land area (covers 500 yards): like a small royal city
- Rich decorations & furnishings: displayed Louis XVI's wealth & power
Louis XVI
- France
- His exit, along with his family and servants, of Versailles during the Great Fear--which took place shortly after the storming of Bastille = signal for change of power and radical reforms
Old Regime
- France
- The social and political system that existed in France in the 1770s before the French Revolution
estates
- France
- One of the 3 social classes people were divided into in France before the French Revolution
- The First Estate: consisting the clergy--of the Roman Catholic Church; possessed 10% of land in France --> provided education & relief services for the poor & 2% of income contributed to government
- The Second Estate: of the nobility; 2% of population but owned 20% of land in France & tax paid almost = none
- The Third Estate: rest of population
- Enlightenment ideas--viewed as radical notions: threatened privileged statues & power of clergy & nobility
bourgeoisie
- France
- First economic group of the Third Estate
- Considered as middle class since paid high taxes and lacked privileges--so not same level as nobles
- Bankers, factory owners, merchants, professionals and skilled artisans
- Many well educated and believed in Enlightenment ideas of liberty and equality
Estates General
- France
- As assembly of representatives from all 3 of the Estates (social classes) in France
- The 1st and 2nd estates outvoted the 3rd estate during the meeting to approve the new tax on the nobility (which Louis XVI thought of as solution to economic problem) on May 5, 1789 at Versailles
National Assembly
- France
- French congress established by representatives of the 3rd Estate on June 17, 1789 to enact laws and reforms in name of French people
- Proclaimed end of absolute monarchy and beginning of representative government
- First deliberate act of revolution
Tennis Court Oath
- France
- A pledge made by members of France's National Assembly in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they have drawn up a new constitution
- Nobles and clergy in favor of the reforms of the Third Estate delegates joined them soon after
Bastille
- France
- A prison in Paris
- On July 14, group of mob looked for gunpowder and arms stormed into this place and seized control of building after overpowered the guards; they had the heads of the prison commander and several guards on spikes
- Symbolic act of French Revolution to the French people & became national holiday in France (like the 4th of July for America)
Great Fear
- France
- A wave of senseless panic that spread through the French countryside after the storming of Bastille in 1789
- Caused by spread of rebellion from Paris to countryside--one village to another
- Peasants became outlaws soon after hearing the nobles were hiring outlaws to terrorize the peasants: broke into houses of nobles, armed with pitchforks and other farm tools, to destroy legal papers that bound them to pay feudal dues & sometimes burned down nobles' manor houses
- Paris women: marched to Versailles, after rioting over rise of bread prices and broke into palace; demanded National Assembly to take action but then killed some guards and demanded Louis & Marie Antoinette return to Paris; after some time, king agreed and left Versailles--never returned--with his family & servants
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
- France
- "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights."
- Document influenced by Virginia Declaration of Rights written by George Mason in 1776
- Promised liberty & equality to citizens & emphasized the need for constitutional protections for these rights
- Stated sovereignty (the right to rule) rested in the people of the nation--not just the king
- Approval raised many important questions & issues about how to interpret & enact this document
Universal Suffrage
- France
- Consists of the extension of the right to vote to adult citizens (or subjects), though it may also mean extending that right to minors (Demeny voting) and non-citizens
Egalitarian
- France
- Of, relating to, or believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.
Legislative Assembly
- France
- A French congress with the power to create laws and approve declarations of war, established by the Constitution of 1791
- The split into 3 general groups was caused by problems such as food shortages and government debt; all sit in different parts of meeting hall
- Radicals: seated left side of the hall & opposed idea of monarchy + wanted changes in running of government
- Moderates: center of hall & wanted some changes in government but not as many as radicals
- Conservatives: right side & wanted few changes in government + upheld idea of limited monarchy
- Declared war in April 1792 after Prussia and Austria took action by urging the French to restore position of absolute monarchy o Louis; after war started, because under pressure of radicals in streets and its members: set constitution aside and declared king deposed, dissolved assembly + called for election of new legislature
Jacobins/Radicals
- France
- Club members of a radical organization--involved in governmental changes in September 1792
- One of most prominent: Jean-Paul Marat; editor of newspaper--L'Ami du Peuple (Friend of the People)--who called for death for all those continued to support the king, in his editorials
- Tried Louis for treason, after his role reduced to a common citizen & prisoner, by National Convention; Convention found him guilty & sentenced him to death with a close vote: beheaded Louis by guillotine machine on January 21, 1793
Maximilien Robespierre
- France
- Slowly gained power in early months of 1793--a Jacobin leader
- With supporters. set out to build "republic of virtue" by wiping every trace of past of France
- He & his followers: firmly believed in reason, changed calendar--divided year into 12 months with 30 days but excluded Sundays, since radicals considered religion = dangerous & old-fashioned; closed all churches over Paris & cities + towns across France followed suit
- Ruled by: Reign of Terror
Reign of Terror
- France
- Period Robespierre = leader of Committee of Public Safety in July 1793; next year: governed France as dictator, virtually
- Committee of Public Safety's job/chief task: protect Revolution from enemies
- As directed/lead by Robespierre, "enemies" tried in morning & guillotined (executed by beheading) in afternoon
- Actions justified by making sure/helping citizens to remain true to ideals of Revolution
- Robespierre: saw connection between virtue & terror; "...virtue without which terror is murderous, terror without which virtue is powerless."
- "Enemies of the Revolution": most were radicals that challenged Robespierre; death sentences received (during 1793-1794) by leaders of Revolution with crime of being less radical than Robespierre
- Radical phase of the French Revolution--ended on 28th of July in 1794 after some members of the National Convention turned on Robespierre by demanding his arrest & execution (out of fear for their own safety)
Royalists
- France
- People who supports the principle of monarchy or a particular monarchy
coup d'état
- France
- A sudden seizure of political power in a nation; assumed dictatorship
- Meaning: "blow to the state"
- Strategy used by Napoleon
plebiscite
- France
- A direct vote in which a country's people have the opportunity to approve or reject a proposal
- Gave all real power to the first consul of France: Napoleon, after sized power
lycées
- France
- Government run public schools
- Ended corruption & inefficiency in government for which graduates with merit, not with family connections, became public officials
concordat
- France
- A formal agreement— especially one between the pope and a government, dealing with the control of Church affairs
- Recognized Church but rejected its control in national affairs
- Gained support of the Church & majority of the French people
Napoleonic Code
- France
- A comprehensive and uniform system of laws established for France by Napoleon
- Gave France a uniform set of laws & eliminated many injustices
- Limited liberty & promoted authority over individual rights
- Restricted freedom of speech & of press
- Restored slavery of French colonies in the Caribbean
Battle of Trafalgar
- France/Britain
- An 1805 naval battle in which Napoleon's forces were defeated by a British fleet under the command of Horatio Nelson
- Results of Napoleon's defeat: 1. ensured supremacy of the British navy for the next 100 years & 2. forced Napoleon to give up plans of invading England; looked for another way to control powerful enemy --> numerous efforts that led him to his own undoing
blockade
- France
- A forcible closing of ports
- During Napoleon's rule: to prevent all trade & communication between Great Britain & other European nations
Continental System
- France
- Napoleon's policy of preventing trade between Great Britain and continental Europe, intended to destroy Great Britain's economy
- Goal: to make continental Europe more self-efficient
scorched-earth policy
- France/Russia
- The practice of burning crops and killing livestock during wartime so that the enemy cannot live off the land
- Strategy used against Napoleon & his army when they marched into Russia in June 1812--after their break of alliance
Waterloo
- France/Britain
- Village in Belgium where the British army, lead by Duke of Wellington prepared for battle against Napoleon
- Battle took place on June 18, 1815, when Napoleon attacked
Klemens von Metternich
- Foreign minister of Austria; his ideas became main ideas of the treaty made by the Congress of Vienna
- Did not want change: a Conservative
- Three main goals: 1. Prevent French aggression (ex: the French Revolution) by surrounding France with strong countries, 2. Restore balance of power--so that no one country is too powerful, and 3. Legitimacy: wanted legitimate rulers to run countries--the absolute monarchs who were the people in power before (old rulers)
balance of power
- A political situation in which no one nation is powerful enough to pose a threat to others
- A part of Metternich's goals/plans for Europe, proposed during Congress of Vienna: led to success & peace in Europe for 50 years
legitimacy
- The hereditary right of a monarch to rule
- A part of Metternich's goals/plans for Europe, proposed during the Congress of Vienna & contributed to its success
Concert of Europe/Holly Alliance
- Alliance system established by Austria & Prussia--to make sure monarchs stay on their thrones
- People worked together & help one another in the face of war
conservative
- Stands at the right of the political spectrum
- Consists of wealthy property owners who wanted to protect monarchy
liberal
- On the political spectrum, in the middle
- "middle class"
- Want power in hands of elected Parliaments but only wanted those educated to to vote
radical
- Located on the left of the political spectrum
- Wants everyone to vote & drastic changes
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