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ap psych unit 3: sensation and perception

Terms in this set (119)

prosopagnosia
inability to recognize familiar faces; deficiency in top-down processing
sensation "detection"
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another; in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies (sights, sounds, smells) into neural impulses our brain can interpret (converted into electrochemical energy)
perception "interpretation"
process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions based on experience/expectations
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity and our psychological experience of them
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time; smallest amount of a stimulus
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
subliminal sensation
below one's absolute threshold fr conscious awareness
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
difference threshold (just noticeable difference)
the minimum difference between the stimuli requited for detection 50% of the time; we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable differnce
weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

light- 8%
weight- 2%
tone- 3%
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
selective attention
the processes that allow an individual to select and focus on particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or distracting information
divided attention
occurs when mental focus is directed towards multiple ideas or tasks at once; also known as multitasking, which people often carry out without realizing it
inattentional blindness
the failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention
change blindness
failure to detect change in their visual field, as long as the change occurs during an eye movement or when people's view is otherwise interrupted
context effects
the context (environmental factors) that surrounds an event affects how an event is perceived and remembered
motivation and emotion
motivation and emotions influence perception
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next; electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know was the color names (blue, green, etc.)
intensity
the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness; determined by the wave's amplitude (height)
cornea
bends light to help provide focus
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
photoreceptors
specialized neurons found in the retina that convert light into electrical signals that stimulate physiological processes
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
bipolar cells
provide the main pathways from photoreceptors to ganglion cells, i.e. the shortest and most direct pathways between the input and output of visual signals in the retina
ganglion cells
the only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation; retinal ganglion cells receive input from retinal bipolar cells; axons of ganglion cells form the optic nerve
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot because no receptor cells are located there
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
young-helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
theory that the retina contains three different color receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
color deficient vision
a variety in deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colors; more common in males
afterimage
sensations that linger after the stimulus is removed
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; for example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
gestalt
an organized whole; gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
figure and ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
proximity
we group nearby figures together
continuity
we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
closure
we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
relative height
perceiving objects higher in our field of vision as farther away
relative size
if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away
interposition
if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
relative motion
as we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move
linear perspective
parallel lines appear to meet in the distance; the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance
light and shadow
shading produces a sense of depth consistent without assumption that light comes from above
motion perception
a series of still images in rapid succession appears to be continuously moving
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
perceptual consistency
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, size) even as illumination and retinal images change
color and brightness constancies
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects; perceive an object as having constant brightness, even while it varies
shape and size constancies
perceive the form of familiar objects as constant, even while our retinas perceive images of them; perceive objects as having a constant size, even while our distance from them varies
perceptual interpretation
the stage of perception in which we assign meaning to the information we have selected
restored vision and sensory restriction
experience guides our perceptual interpretations
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
audition
the sense or act of hearing
sound waves
jostling molecules of air create waves of compressed/expanded air; vary in shape
amplitude
determines loudness
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
outer ear (pinna)
sound waves enter, channels waves through the auditory canal to eardrum
eardrum (tympanic membrane)
tight membrane, vibrates when in contact with sound waves; helps to amplify sound waves as they lose strength traveling down the auditory canal
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate on the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
conduction hearing loss
less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness)
most common form of hearing loss (also called nerve deafness) caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
responding to loud and soft sounds
brain interprets loudness from number of activated hair cells
hearing different pitches
each frequency of a complex sound maximally vibrates the membrane at one location
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
locating sound (sound localization)
with the placement of our two ears, we have stereophonic (3D) hearing
touch
involves more than tactile stimulation; mix of pressure, warmth, cold, pain; tickling, itching, wetness
pain (nociceptors)
sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli
understanding pain
women are more sensitive to pain; individual pain sensitivity depends on genes, physiology, experience, attention, surrounding culture
biological influences
nociceptors detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals
gate control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
psychological influences
perception of pain can be influenced by the attention we focus on it; edit memories of pain
socio-cultural influences
presence of others, empathy for others' pain, cultural expectations
controlling pain
other influences impact pain; where body meets mind
placebos
dampens central nervous system's attention and responses to peaceful experiences; brain relates real chemicals if one believes the placebo has them
distracation
drawing attention away from painful stimulation is an effective way to activate pain-inhibiting circuits and to increase pain tolerance
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
taste (gustation)
chemical sense; tastes attracted ancestors to energy and protein rich foods that enabled their survival
- sweet: energy source
- salty: sodium essential to physiological processes
- sour: potentially toxic acid
- bitter: potential poison
- umami: proteins to grow and repair tissue
smell (olfaction)
molecules of that substance reach a cluster of our receptor cells in our nose; receptor cells respond to a familiar sense and instantly alert the brain
body position and movement
provide information in respect to environment
kinesthesia
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
the mcgurk effect
auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound
embodied cognition
influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
vision source and receptors
source: light waves striking the eye
receptors: rods and cones in the retina
hearing source and receptors
source: sound waves striking the outer ear
receptors: cochlear hair cells in the inner ear
touch source and receptors
source: pressure, warmth, cold on the skin
receptors: skin receptors detect pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
taste source and receptors
source: chemical molecules in the mouth
receptors: basic tongue receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
smell source and receptors
source: chemical molecules breathed in through the nose
receptors: millions of receptors at top of nasal cavity
body position- kinesthesia source and receptors
source: any change in position of a body part, interacting with vision
receptors: kinesthetic sensors in joints, muscles, tendons
body movement- vestibular sense source and receptors
source: movements of fluids in the inner ear caused by head or body movement
receptors: hairlike receptors in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
sight absolute threshold example
a candle flame at 30 miles on a clear, dark night
hearing absolute threshold example
the tick of a watch 20 feet away in a quiet room
smell absolute threshold example
one drop of perfume diffused throughout a three-room apartment
taste absolute threshold example
one teaspoon of sugar in two gallons of water
touch absolute threshold example
a bee's wing falling on the cheek from one centimeter above
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