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PSYCH 1410 Chapter 6

Terms in this set (99)

___________________________: how information gets into memory
encoding
_________________________: how information is maintained (stored) in memory
storage
___________________________: how information is pulled out of (retrieved from) memory
retrievel
__________________________ Memory: preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time
1) ___________________ memory last ¼ to 1 second
2) Auditory memory lasts ____ to ____ seconds
sensory, visual, 2, 4
1) Capacity (i.e. how much can be stored): ____ +/- ____ (____ to ____ chunks)
(a) Chunk: a group of familiar ________________________ stored as a single unit
7, 2, 5, 9, stimuli
Duration is ____ to ____ seconds without rehearsal
(a) __________________________ is repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about the information
20, 30, rehearsal
Duration (i.e. how long we store it) is possibly ________________________
premonant
Example: _________________________ Memories - vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotion-provoking event (where were you doing during 9/11?)
flashbulb
______________________________ memory is for actions and skills (ex: how to ride a bike, ski, etc.)
procedural
Declarative memory is memory for facts (two types)
(a) Semantic memory is for _______________________ facts
(b) Episodic memory is for __________________________ facts
general, personal
· Depth of Processing
Craik and _______________________ Study: manipulated the depth of processing by varying types of __________________________ subjects had to answer about each word on a list
(a) The _______________________ we process information, the better our LTM
(b) _________________________ Processing: emphasizes meaning (deeper processing)
tulving, questions
· Rehearsal
Serial ________________________ effects: better recall for words at the beginning and end than in the middle
(a) ________________________ effect: recall words at the beginning of a list better; effect due to repetition of first few words in the list
(b) _________________________ effect: recall words at the end of a list better; due to recall from STM
position, primary, recency
Place information into a ___________________________ context (kite example)
meaningful
_______________________________: linking stimulus to other information at the time of encoding (example: applying classical conditioning to your own fear of spiders)
elaberation
Mnemonics are__________________________ and ___________________ for memory (example: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally = Parenthesis Exponents Multiplication Division Addition and Subtraction, for the order of operations in math)
strategies, tricks
Visual Imagery Encoding
· Definition: the process of storing new information by converting it into _______________________ _______________________
mental pictues
Modern-day "memory athletes" who compete in memory championships typically rely on visual imagery encoding to accomplish astounding feats of _________________________________.
memorization
Works for two reasons:
(a) When you create a visual image, you relate information to knowledge already in ___________________________.
(b) When you use visual imagery to encode words, you end up with two different mental _________________________________ for the items, which gives you more ways to remember them.
memory, placeholders
Organizational Encoding
· Definition: the process of categorizing information according to the ______________________________ among a series of items.
1) Example: restaurant servers organizing table orders into hot drinks, cold drinks, hot foods, and cold foods.
relationships
Encoding of Survival-Related Information
· Participants who were asked to rate the relevance of randomly chosen words (e.g., stone, meadow, chair) for a survival situation later recalled ___________________ of those words than participants who were asked to rate their usefulness for moving or their pleasantness.
less
_____________________________ amnesia: the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store (can't remember new information).
anterograde
________________________________ amnesia: the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery (can't remember previous information).
retrograde
Research has shown that different aspects of a single memory (sights, sounds, smells, and emotions) are stored in ________________________parts of the cortex.
different
Some psychologists argue that the hippocampal region acts as a kind of "index" that ___________________ ______________________ all of these aspects so that we remember them as one memory.
links together
Consolidation Stabilizes Memories
· Definition: the process by which memories become ____________________ in the brain.
· Reconsolidation: The process by which memories can become vulnerable to ___________________________ when they are _________________________, requiring them to be consolidated again.
stable, disruption, recalled
_________________________effect: put yourself in the same context as when you learned the information (example: scuba divers)
context
Encoding Specificity Principle: the better the match between the ___________________you study material and the __________________you are given on a test, the better your recall (example: you would study differently for a fill in the blank test versus definition test)
way, cues
State-dependent retrieval: the tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same ___________________ during encoding and retrieval.
state
Example: It is easier to remember happy memories when you are in a ______________________ mood.
happy
Retrieval Can __________________________ Subsequent Memory
differ
Retrieval Can ________________________ Subsequent Memory
improve
Retrieval-induced ______________________________: a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory _______________________ subsequent recall of related items.
(a) When witnesses to a staged crime are questioned about some details of the crime scene, their ability to later recall ______________________details that they were not asked about is ________________________compared to witnesses who were not questioned at all initially.
forgetting, impairs, related, impaired
Retrieval Can ________________________ Subsequent Memory
change
Participants who toured a museum while wearing a camera that took a picture every 15 seconds sometimes incorrectly __________________________ stops they had never even visited when shown novel photos of these unvisited stops.
remembered
__________________________ memory occurs when people intentionally retrieve past experiences.
explicit
_________________________ memories are not consciously recalled, but their presence is "________________________" by our actions.
implicit, implied
___________________________ refers to an ______________________ability to think of a stimulus, such as a ___________________ or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus.
priming, enhanced, word
Some otherwise high-functioning people seem to lack the ability to ___________________________ reexperience past events, even though they know those events happened, something which researchers have named severely deficient ___________________________________________ memory (SDAM).
vivid, autobiological
The ability to travel back in time and reexperience your personal past is a hallmark of _________________________________ memory.
episodic
Individuals with SDAM show reduced volume of the right ____________________________________ in structural MRI scans.
hippocampus
Transience: forgetting what occurs with the passage of ___________________
time
When we don't immediately know the answer to a question, we immediately think about _______________________________rather than searching our ______________________________.
computers, memories
People had a __________________________time remembering trivia that they typed into a computer when they were told that the computer would ___________________their answers.
harder, save
People were often able to remember where they ___________________the answers.
saved
This suggests that people may be __________________________ their memories to the demands of new_____________________________________, relying on computers in a way that is similar to how we sometimes rely on other ___________________ (friends, family member, and colleagues) to remember things that we may not remember ourselves.
adapting, technology, people
________________________________ interference refers to situation in which more recent learning impairs memory for information previously learned (you study your science and then your psychology and now you can't remember your science)
retroactive
Proactive ________________________________ refers to situations in which earlier learning ___________________ memory for information acquired later (your old phone number is similar and that makes it hard to learn your new phone number).
interference, impairs
_________________________________: a lapse in attention that results in memory failure
absentmindedness
______________________: something is available in memory, but you cannot retrieve it.
blocking
Memory Misattribution: assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong __________________________.
source
The man who identified the Oklahoma City federal building bomber also described an accomplice that didn't ___________________. Two men, one similar in appearance to the bomber, had also rented a van the day after the bomber did.
exist
___________________ memory: recall of when, where, and how information was acquired.
source
Suggestibility: the tendency to incorporate _________________________ information from __________________________ sources into personal recollection.
misleading, external
Approximately place_____ % of the 24 participants in one study falsely remembered being ___________________ in a shopping mall or a similar public space.
25, lost
___________________: an organized cluster of ___________________ about a particular object or sequence of events.
schema, knowledge
___________________questions: How a question inquiring about a particular memory is worded influences how that memory is remembered.
(a) Example: "How fast were the cars going when they (smashed into) each other?"
suggestive
________________: influence of present knowledge and feelings on memories of past events. People remember the past the way they want it to be rather than how it actually was.
bias
Persistence: the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could ___________________.
forget
A key part of the brain contributing to persistence is the _________________________________, which release stress related hormones that enhance the memory of a given stressful event.
amygdala
Roughly _________________ of people have experienced déjà vu at least once; this experience is usually accompanied by a feeling of __________________________________, or a sense of knowing exactly what is going to happen next.
two-third, precognition
Déjà vu can be driven by _____________________ between a novel scene and a previously viewed scene that cannot be recalled.
overlap
Cleary and Claxton call déjà vu "an illusion of ________________________" because, despite feeling as if you can predict what happens next, studies show that that feeling does not contain ___________________________ information about what the future has in store.
prediction, reliable
In a courtroom, mistaken _______________________________ is a leading cause of conviction of the innocent.
identification
Many factors can affect the reliability of an eyewitness identification such as _________________________________ at the time of the event, lapse of ___________________, and post-event discussions with police.
distractions, time
We can never entirely _________________________________ human error from the justice system, but _________________________________________ in witnesses and misunderstanding by _______________________________ leads to many wrongful ________________________________.
eliminate, overconfidence, factfinders, convictions
Reading
Previewing each section before you read, and writing _______________________
Using questions to think while you read, and to ________________ yourself after reading
questions, test
Copying definitions
Writing definitions in ________________ ___________________ ___________________
your own words
Memorizing definitions
Stating definitions in your own words, as though you were trying to ________________________ the terms to _______________________ __________________
explain, someone else
Copying notes
Elaborating on your notes
Noting ___________________________ between your notes and your past knowledge or experience
Making ___________________________between terms and concepts within the material
connections, connections
Rereading the test or your notes
__________________________ your notes or the text in different ways
Self-testing with questions you wrote or those provided in the text
Testing yourself to see if you can repeat in_________________________________________________________material you have just read
processing, your own words the
Taking notes focused on the professors words
Writing down not only what is on the slide, board, or outline, but also supplementing with ___________________ _______________________ ______________________
Marking spots of confusion and asking the professor for clarification
your own words
Comparing your notes with a classmate to make sure you "get everything down"
...
_________________________ your notes with a classmate; ___________________________to each other the material in your notes
Filling in any gaps with your own words
discussing, explaining
14 Forgetting
· Did not _____________________ information into LTM (example: reading words in text but not processing them)
· ___________________of Memory Traces: memories fade away with passage of time if not renewed through periodic use (no longer exist)
· __________________________________: information is accessible but cannot be accessed because of interference from other information
· ________________________ _______________________: cue dependent forgetting
1) Example: Encoding specificity principle
encode, decay, interference, retrieval failure
Use _____________________________ strategies: putting information into an organized framework in order to remember it more easily (example: HOMES for the names of the Great Lakes)
mnemonic
Use ___________________cards or Quizlet
flash
______________________________ practice (i.e. ___________________out your studying) is more effective.
distributed, spread
Study in a situation as _____________________ as possible to the test taking environment.
similar
Get enough ___________________the night before the test.
sleep
When taking a multiple choice test, say the ___________________ to yourself ___________________ looking at the options.
answer, before
· Skip __________________________ you don't know and come ___________________ to them.
questions, back
Exercise Your Brain by Reading Before Class
· Invite Desirable Difficulties
1) If you catch yourself ______________________________, start re-reading with the intention of staying more engaged
skimming
Space it Out
1) If you have a 50-page chapter to read, _______________________your reading across a couple of days. Your brain needs breaks in order for memories to _________________________________.
breakdown, consolidate
Self-test While You Read
1) Write ______________________________ for yourself as you read. Self-test yourself and take note of the information that you ___________________ ___________________.
questions, left out
Work the Information in Different Ways
1) Instead of taking notes verbatim from the book or screen, write notes in ___________________ ___________________ ___________________. Consider how the information links to your ___________________________.
your own words, experiences
Create a Set of Complete and Personally Meaningful Notes
· Remind yourself to focus on the ___________________________, not just the words:
· Listen for ________________________________ ___________________ from your professor:
1) Professors says "There are four components of Z" - signals the start of a numbered list in your notes
meaning, organizational cues
Develop a set of abbreviations and symbols
1) Helps to save ___________________ while note-taking, but make sure the abbreviations and symbols help you make ___________________ of the material
time, sense
Draw a representation of how concepts relate to each other
1) Consider using ________________________ or create __________________________
arrows, development
Check yourself by noting spots where you got lost or confused
1) Mark where you get lost to keep pace with class while note-taking. Ask the ___________________________ or another _______________________________ about it immediately after class.
· As soon as possible after class, review your notes and jot down any ________________________________ _____________________________ that comes to mind.
1) Do this while the information is still fresh, especially with a classmate.
professor, classmate, additional information
______________________________ Deeply
(a) You may not be able to prevent stress, but you can impact how long it lasts by the rate of your ______________________________
breathe, breathing
Have a ___________________-__________________________ Plan
(a) Do what works best for you to ________________ _________________________ before the test is passed out (music, talking with others, etc.)
stress reduction, reduce stress
Identify Factors That Influence Your Ability to ______________ ___________________________
(a) Ask the professor for minor __________________________________ (if you can wear earplugs, or close the door to the hallway).
(b) Make an appointment with the disabilities services department well in advance of exams for more significant accommodations.
stay focused, requests
Start by _____________________________
(a) This exposes yourself to cues that will spark activation of your neural networks.
skimming
Write on the Exam (if permitted)
(a) This helps to ease the strain on your busy mind. Circle _____________________________ ___________________, cross out answers you know are ____________________________, etc.
important words, incorrect
If You Are Uncertain, Mark, Move On, and ___________________ Later
(a) Don't waste time on a question you aren't getting at the moment. Coming back to a difficult question later allows your brain time to activate proper ____________________________.
return, pathway
Tip for Multiple-Choice Questions
(a) Treat them as an ___________________-___________________ question first, and try to ___________________ the answer. Sometimes it's easy to overthink the answer choices.
open ended, recall
Don't Assume Your First Hunch Is Always Correct
(a) Research indicates that students more often change from an ____________________________to a _______________________ answer. If you are struck by compelling reasons that suggest your initial answer is incorrect, trust your reasoning.
incorrect, correct
Tip for Essay Questions
(a) Try to organize your thoughts into some kind of ________________________________ first. Provide the information that is __________________________________.
structure, requested
Don't ___________________
(a) Take all the time you are given on an exam!
rush
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