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Psych 110 - Unit 2 (chapters 5-7)

Terms in this set (229)

The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment.
Consciousness
In _________________, we are awake and aware
Waking Consciousness
All other states of consciousness besides waking consciousness are considered _________________________.
Altered States of Consciousness
Sleeping and Dreaming occur ________________.
naturally
Characterized by:
- Beta waves
- High frequency (i.e., wave pattern goes up and down a great deal)
- Low amplitude (i.e., wave pattern does not have very high peaks or very low ebbs; pattern does not fall from a higher to a lower level)
- Desynchronous pattern (i.e., wave pattern is not very consistent)
Wakefulness: Awake and Aware
Characterized by:
- Alpha waves
- Lower frequency
- Increase in amplitude
- Synchronous pattern (i.e., wave pattern is more consistent)
Wakefulness: Awake and Relax/Drowsy
The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep.
Stage 1 Sleep
Characterized by:
- Theta waves
- Characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves.
Stage 1 Sleep
Characterized by:
- Theta waves
- Characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern
- Includes momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles" (i.e., momentary interruptions of sharply pointed, spiky waves)
Stage 2 Sleep
(a sleep deeper than stage 1)
The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation.
- Delta waves
Stage 3 Sleep
The period of sleep characterized by quick, back-and-forth eye movements.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM Sleep)
REM sleep occupies _______ of an adult's sleeping time.
20%
Characterized by:
- Increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate
- Major muscles of the body appear to be paralyzed
- Usually accompanied by dreams whether or not people remember them.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM Sleep)
REM-deprived sleepers spend significantly more time in REM sleep than normal.
Rebound Effect
Why does REM sleep play a role in learning and memory?
It allows us to rethink and restore information and emotional experiences.
______________ is a requirement for normal human functioning.
Sleep
Why is Sleep Important? (4 reasons)
- Conserve energy at night
- Restoration and replenishment for the brain and body
- Reverse learning: eliminating unnecessary information that accumulates throughout the day
- Assists physical growth and brain development in children.
Most people sleep between ____ and ____ hours per night
7 and 8 hours
What are some symptoms of sleep deprivation?
- Weariness
- Irritability
- Difficulty Concentrating
- Loss of Creativity
- Decline in logical reasoning ability
Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled.
Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory
What we remember and report
Manifest Content
Our actual underlying wishes
Latent Content
Dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep
Dreams-For-Survival Theory
This Theory States that:
- Dreams represent concerns about our daily lives, illustrating our uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires
- Dreaming is considered an inheritance from our animal ancestors and is a mechanism for processing information
Dreams-For-Survival Theory
Hobson's theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain.
Activation-Synthesis Theory
Dreams are initiated in the brain's pons, which sends random signals to the cortex.
Activation Information Modulation (AIM)
Psychoanalytical explanation in which dreams represent unconscious wishes the dreamer wants to fulfill
Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory (Sigmund Freud)
What is the meaning of dreams according to the Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory?
Latent content reveals unconscious wishes
Is meaning disguised in dreams according to the Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory?
Yes, by manifest content of dreams
Evolutionary explanation in which information relevant to daily survival is reconsidered and reprocessed
Dreams-For-Survival Theory
What are the meaning of dreams according to the Dreams-For-Survival Theory?
Clues to everyday concerns about survival
Is meaning disguised in dreams according to Dreams-For-Survival Theory?
not necessarily
Neuroscience explanation in which dreams are the result of random activation of various memories, which are tied together in a logical storyline
Activation-Synthesis Theory
What is the meaning of dreams according to Activation-Synthesis Theory?
Dream scenario that is constructed is related to dreamer's concerns
Is meaning disguised in dreams according to Activation-Synthesis Theory?
not necessarily
- Unable to fall asleep easily; or frequent waking
- More common in women and older adults.
Insomnia
The person has difficulty breathing while sleeping.
- the lack of oxygen triggers a waking response
Sleep Apnea
Sleep Apnea in infants may play a role in ________________________.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep.
- Often associated with negative experiences, worry, and strong physiological arousal
Nightmares
Sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal
- Are less common than nightmares
- Occur most frequently in children between the ages of 3
- Initially produces great agitation
- Victims can usually get back to sleep fairly quickly
Night Terrors
Uncontrollable sleeping for short periods while a person is awake.
Narcolepsy
At what stage of sleep do both sleep-talking and sleep-walking occur?
Stage 3 Sleep
Are Sleep-talking and Sleep-walking harmful?
no, usually harmless
Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle.
Circadian Rhythms
What is Circadian Rhythm controlled by?
The brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
A severe depression that increases in the winter.
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Most adults are at their ____________ peak in the mornings; but _____________ sometimes increases in the evening
cognitive, creativity
Heart attacks and strokes occur most frequently and are most severe between ___________ and __________. Asthma attacks and heartburn are more common during the ____________ hours
6:00a.m. and noon, Evening
Fantasies that people construct while awake.
- We are experiencing waking consciousness; but our awareness of our environment declines
Daydreams
Daydreaming may contain elements of _________________ in which people talk to themselves in their heads.
Inner Speech
What does Inner Speech help us to do?
plan, be creative, and regulate our emotions
A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.
Hypnosis
What are the 4 steps of the process of Hypnosis?
1.) The person is made comfortable in a quiet environment.
2.) The hypnotist explains what is going to happen.
3.) The hypnotist tells the person to concentrate on a specific object or image, or on relaxing different parts of the body.
4.) The hypnotist makes suggestions the person interprets as being produced by hypnosis, and he or she becomes susceptible to further suggestions.
Some psychologists see hypnosis as a state of ___________________.
Divided Consciousness
A division or dissociation of consciousness into two simultaneous components.
Dissociation
What are the two components of Dissociation?
- In one, the person follows the commands of the hypnotist.
- In the other, he or she acts as a "hidden observer."
Psychologists in many different areas have found hypnosis to be a valuable tool for:
- Controlling pain;
- Reducing smoking;
- Treating psychological disorders;
- Assisting in law enforcement; and
- Improving athletic performance
A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.
Meditation
Meditation consists of the repetition of a _________ -- a sound, word or syllable
Mantra
Long-term practice of Meditation improves health because of the biological changes it produces:
- Decreased oxygen usage
- Reduced heart rate and blood pressure
- Change in brain-wave patterns
- Different cultural practices and meditation
Drugs that influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior
Psychoactive Drugs
Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence on the user.
Addictive Drugs
Feeling like the body cannot function without a specific drug.
Biological Drug Dependence
People believe they need the drug to respond to daily stress
Psychological Drug Dependence
What are some factors that lead people to take drugs?
- Pleasure
- Escape
- Peer Pressure
- Genetics
Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system.
- Cause a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.
Stimulants
What are some examples of Stimulants?
caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, Adderall, bath salts, and cocaine
Drugs that slow down the nervous system.
Depressants
Small doses of depressants result in temporary feelings of ________________.
Intoxication and Drunkness along with Euphoria
What are some examples of Depressants?
alcohol, barbiturates, opiates
Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety
Narcotics
What are some examples of Opiates?
Opiates (e.g., morphine, heroin, codeine) and opioids (e.g., Vicodin, Percocet, fentanyl, and OxyContin)
Drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings.
Hallucinogens
What are some examples of Hallucinogens?
Marijuana, MDMA (e.g., Ecstasy or Molly), and LSD
Stimulant that produces several reactions, and individuals can build up a biological dependence.
Caffeine
Is found in cigarettes, and smokers develop a dependence
Nicotine
Such as those popularly known as speed, have several effects.
- In too large a quantity, convulsions and death can occur
Amphetamines
Is a white, crystalline drug that produces a strong, lingering high.
- Long-term use can lead to brain damage.
Methamphetamine ("Meth")
Drug that was developed to help those who suffer from ADHD, but it is often abused.
Adderall
An amphetamine-like stimulant that can produce euphoria but also paranoia and agitation.
Bath Salts
stimulant that acts on the neurotransmitter dopamine.
- can rewire the brain and create psychological and physical addiction
Cocaine ("Crack")
What happens over time to Cocaine users?
users can deteriorate mentally and physically
- ultimately, overdose can lead to death
The most common depressant is ______________, used by more people than is any other drug.
Alcohol
What is considered binge drinking for men and women?
- Five or more drinks in one sitting for men
- Four or more drinks in one sitting for women
Although most people are casual users, ______________ people in the United States have a drinking problem
14 million
People with alcohol-abuse problems, who come to rely on alcohol and continue to drink even though it causes serious difficulties.
Alcoholics
A form of central nervous system depressant.
- They produce a sense of relaxation and are frequently prescribed by physicians.
- At larger doses, they produce altered thinking, faulty judgment, and sluggishness
- When combined with alcohol, they can be deadly
Barbiturates
Is called the "date rape drug" because when mixed with alcohol, it can prevent resistance to assult.
Rohypnol
Two of the most powerful narcotics are ____________ and _____________, both derived from the poppy seed pod.
Morphine and Heroin
Refer to narcotics derived from natural substances — morphine, heroin, and codeine.
Opiates
Refers to synthetic narcotics — Vicodin, Percocet, Fentanyl, and OxyContin
Opioids
A synthetic chemical that satisfies a heroin user's biological cravings without the "high."
Methadone
The most common hallucinogen in widespread use today.
Marijuana
What is the active drug in marijuana that is found in the common weed cannabis?
Tetrahydrocannabinol
What do MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD or acid) both affect?
the operation of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain.
Produces feelings of increased energy, euphoria, and empathy; but may contribute to memory and intellectual problems.
MDMA
Produces vivid hallucinations and is one of the most powerful mind-altering chemicals
- Experiences can be terrifying
- Flashbacks may occur long after use of the drug.
LSD
A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.
Learning
Infants exhibit a simple type of learning called _______________ - the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
Habituation
_________________'s classic experiments on basic learning processes showed that dogs who salivated in response to food would begin to salivate just at the approach of the experimenter who normally brought the food.
- The dogs were responding as a result of learning
Ivan Pavlov's
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
Classical Conditioning
A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Response that is natural and needs no training.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
- Brings about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR)
The Basic Process of Classical Conditioning:
(a.) Before Conditioning: The sound of a bell does not produce salivation, meaning that the bell is a neutral stimulus. In contrast, meat naturally brings about salivation making the meat an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and salivation an unconditioned response (UCR)
(b.) During Conditioning (Acquisition Trials): The bell rings just before the presentation of the meat.
(c.) After Conditioning: Eventually, the sound of the bell alone produces salivation. We now can say that conditioning has been accomplished: the previously neutral stimulus of the bell is now considered a conditioned stimulus (CS) that brings about the conditioned response of salivation (CR)
The Basic Process of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned = ____________
Learned
Unconditioned = ____________
Not Learned
An unconditioned stimulus leads to an ____________________________.
unconditioned response
A conditioned stimulus leads to a ____________________________.
conditioned response
Procedure in which a conditioned stimulus from one learning trial functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial; second conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the conditioned response, even though it has never been directly paired with unconditioned stimulus.
Higher Order Classical Conditioning
Who developed the case study of "Little Albert"
John. B Watson and Rosalie
Classical conditioning can lead to the development of:
- Phobias, which are intense, irrational fears
- Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suffered by some war veterans and others.
- Positive experiences, such as a song bringing back memories.
A basic learning phenomenon that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears.
Extinction
The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
Spontaneous Recovery
A process in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
Stimulus Generalization
The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another.
- one evokes a conditioned response, but the other does not
Stimulus Discrimination
___________________, a learning psychologist, found that some organisms were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick.
- Learned taste aversion could occur
John Garcia
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response's favorable or unfavorable consequences.
Operant Conditioning
Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Thorndike's Law of Effect
According to _________________, over time and through experience, an organism makes a direct connection between the stimulus and the response without any awareness that the connection exists.
Edward L. Thorndike
Psychologist _____________ developed the Skinner Box: a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning with laboratory animals.
B.F. Skinner
The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcement
Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
Reinforcer
A ____________________ satisfies some biological needs and works naturally, regardless of previous experience.
- For example: food for a hungry person
Primary Reinforcer
A _______________________ becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer
- For example, money; and the token systems sometimes used in psychological treatment.
Secondary Reinforcer
A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.
- For example, the paychecks that workers get at the end of the week.
Positive Reinforcer
An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated.
- For example, if you have an itchy rash that is relieved when you apply a certain brand of ointment
Negative Reinforcer
A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again.
Punishment
Weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
- For example, spanking.
Positive Punishment
Weakens a response through the removal of something pleasant.
- For example, no more video games.
Negative Punishment
What are the Pros of Punishment:
- Appropriate for dangerous behaviors.
- Temporary suppression provides an opportunity to reinforce more desirable behaviors.
What are the Cons of Punishment?
- Frequently ineffective.
- Punished behavior may be replaced by even less desirable behavior.
- Physical punishment can cause harm, fear, lowered self-esteem
- Does not relay information about alternative, more desired behavior
The pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior.
Schedule of Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time.
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
The time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Behavior reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence.
Stimulus Control Training
Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response.
Discriminative Stimulus
The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Shaping
A technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.
Behavior Modification
What are the typical steps of Behavior Modification?
- Identify goals and target behaviors
- Design a data-recording system and record preliminary data
- Select a behavior-change strategy
Implement the program
- Keep careful records after the program is implemented
- Evaluate and alter the ongoing program
An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.
- The idea is that people develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Learning in which a new behavior is not demonstrated until someone incentive is provided for displaying it.
- Occurs without reinforcement.
Latent Learning
In experiments with rats, the rats seemed to develop a _________________ — a mental representation of spatial locations and directions.
Cognitive Map
According to psychologist ________________________, a major part of human learning is Observational Learning: learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model.
- Classic Bobo doll experiment
Albert Bandura
Neurons that fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior
Mirror Neurons
The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
Memory
Recording information in a form usable to memory
Encoding
The maintenance of material saved in memory
Storage
Locating material and bringing it into awareness so that it can be used
Retrieval
Initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant
Sensory Memory
Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds, stores according to meaning rather than sensory stimulation
Short-Term Memory
Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve
- Almost unlimited capacityWha
Long-Term Memory
- The first storehouse of information
- Operates as a kind of snapshot that stores information for a brief moment in time; can store an almost exact replica of each stimulus to which it is exposed
Sensory Memory
Memory that reflects information from the visual system; lasts less than a second.
Iconic Memory
Memory that stores auditory information coming from the ears' lasts 2 to 3 seconds
Echoic Memory
If sensory memory does not pass into short-term memory, it is __________________
lost for good
We can hold up to ____ items, or "chunks," of information in short-term memory, with variations up to plus or minus 2 chunks
7
A group of separate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory
Chunk
Information in short-term memory is lost unless _________________________________.
it is transferred to long-term memory
The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory.
- Maintains information in short-term memory when repeated.
- Allows transfer of information into long-term memory.
Repetitive Rehearsal
Occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion; rehearsal that moves information into long-term memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal
Strategies for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered.
Mnemonics
A memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information
Working Memory
Working memory contains a ___________________________________ that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and planning; it determines what we pay attention to and what we ignore
Central Executive Processor
Holds visual and spatial information
Visual Store
Holds material relating to language (e.g., speech, words, numbers).
Verbal Store
Contains information that represents events and occurrences.
Episodic Buffer
______________ memory allows us to keep information in an active state so we can do something with it
Working
As it processes information, it uses a significant amount of cognitive resources; and the number of chunks that can be held and processed is ________________
Limited
____________ can reduce the capacity of working memory
Stress
What are some examples of evidence for long-term memory?
- People with certain kinds of brain damage may have poor memory performance
- Results of laboratory memory studies
The ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears
- best remembered are items that come early
Primary Effect
The ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears
- best remembered are items that are presented late
Recency Effect
Tendency to recall items at beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle
Serial Position Effect
Refers to factual information; it is sometimes called explicit memory, and is further subdivided into:
Declarative Memory
General knowledge
Semantic Memory
For events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
Episodic Memory
In contrast with declarative memory, _________________________ refers to memory for skills and habits
Procedural Memory
Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
Semantic Networks
Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as ________________________________.
Spreading Activation
The physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory.
Engram
A part of the brain's limbic system, it plays a central role in the consolidation of memories.
Hippocampus
A part of the brain's limbic system, it is involved with memories involving emotion
Amygdala
When certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned.
Long-Term Potentiation
When memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory.
Consolidation
New research shows that a brain implant that works like a pacemaker helps improve memory:
_________________________________________ stimulates the brain and in turn has improved memory in experimental settings.
Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS)
The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows
- It occurs as a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
Stimuli that allow us to more easily recall information that is in long-term memory
Retrieval Cues
Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved.
- e.g., essay exams
Recall
Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
- e.g., multiple-choice exams
Recognition
A theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
Levels-of-Processing Theory
At ___________ levels of the Levels-of-Processing Theory, information is processed merely in terms of its physical and sensory aspects.
Shallow
At the ___________ levels of the Levels-of-Processing Theory, information is analyzed in terms of its meaning
DIeepest
Intentional or conscious recollection of information.
Explicit Memory
Memories of which people are not consciously aware.
- Can affect subsequent performance and behavior
- Closely related to the prejudice and discrimination people can exhibit without being aware of their underlying beliefs.
Implicit Memory
Occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information
Priming
Memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery
Flashbulb Memories
Occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it.
Source Amnesia
Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events.
Constructive Processes
Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
Schemas
What are some examples of why eyewitness identification of suspects and memories of crime are subject to significant errors?
- The sight of a weapon acts like a perceptual magnet, drawing attention away from other details.
- The specific wording of questions can also lead to errors.
- In some cases, the more confident a witness, the less accurate his or her recollections are.
Why are children's eyewitness statements more problematic than adults?
- Their memories are highly vulnerable to others' influence
- They are especially susceptible to influence in emotional or stressful situations
Apparent recollection of events that are initially so shocking that the mind pushed them into the unconscious
- Freud's psychoanalytic theory suggests they are hidden for a lifetime unless triggered by certain circumstances or probing.
- Many such memories may be inaccurate or even wholly false
Repressed Memories
Memories that may be at work when people embrace so-called "fake news."
- A person hears or reads new from an unreliable source and later may not be able to recall the source, yet he or she still believes in its accuracy
False Memories
In a study by _______________________, people were asked to provide details of an incident in childhood when they had been lost in a shopping mall (which had NOT happened)
Elizabeth Loftus
By trying to picture details, most people came to believe that the incident had actually happened when it actually didn't; they had acquired an ________________________
Implanted Memory
By trying to help someone recall a memory, you may ________________ a memory.
Implant
Once we have an inaccurate memory, we tend to increase our confidence in the memory and to keep adding more imagined details, as perhaps we do for all memories.
Imagination Inflation
Our recollection of our own life experiences.
- Encompasses episodic memories we hold about ourselves
Autobiographical Memory
Particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others: in late adulthood, people tend to best remember the periods in which they experienced __________________________.
Major Transitions
What are the benefits to forgetting?
Memory failure is essential to remembering important information.
- Forgetting helps keep unwanted information from interfering with retrieving information that is wanted.
- Forgetting also permits us to form general impressions and recollections.
- Forgetting forces our brain to relearn and remember better in the future
One reason we forget is failure of __________________.
Encoding
The loss of information through its nonuse
- Assumes that memory traces, the physical changes when new material is learned, simply disintegrate over time.
Decay
Information in memory disrupts the recall of other information.
Interference
Occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information in memory.
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
Information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material and progresses in time.
- Ex. You first learned French in the 10th grade, and then in the 11th grade you took Spanish. You may find you have difficulty recalling the Spanish translation of a word because all you can think of is its French equivalent.
Proactive Interference
Material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier and retrogresses in time.
- Ex. You have difficulty on a French subject achievement test because of your more recent exposure to Spanish.
Retroactive Interference
Proactive interference ________________ in time; retroactive interference ________________ in time, working backward.
Progresses, Retrogresses
A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities.
- Fourth-leading cause of death among adults in the U.S.
Alzheimer's disease
Memory Loss without other mental difficulties
Amnesia
Memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events.
Retrograde Amnesia
Memory is lost for events that follow an injury
Anterograde Amnesia
A disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics
- Includes hallucinations and a tendency to repeat stories
Korsakoff's
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