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Anatomy Test 4

Terms in this set (130)

skeletal system functions

support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell formation

Axial skeleton includes

made up of the skull, vertebral column and the ribs

the appendicular skeleton is made up of the

appendages, shoulder and hip bones

The bones are classified as

long (includes fingers), short(cubed shape), flat and irregular

The intramembranous method of bone formation is used to create the bone of the

skull and the clavicles

the process of intramembranous formation starts with

starts with the mesenchymal cells forming a fibrous connective tissue membrane

1st step of intramembranous formation

osteoblasts develop, forming an ossification center in the membrane

2nd step of intramembranous bone formation

a bone matrix, known as osteoid, is secreted by the osteoblasts. They will secrete alkaline phosphatase which will lead to the next step

3rd step of intramembranous bone formation

mineralization of osteoid material traps cells in bone material, they become osteocytes

4th step of intramembranous bone formation

trabeculae (small shelves) form around blood vessels, giving support to thebone

5th step of intramembranous bone formation

periosteum forms around the bone. This is a vascularized tissue that will have an inner osteogenic layer and an outer layer made of dense, irregular CT. One of the features of this layer is Sharpey's fibers, which extend into the bone andanchor the CT

6th step of intramembranous bone formation

Trabeculae directly under the periosteum thicken to form a bone collar. Deeperin the bone, the trabeculae remain distinct, forming spongy bone, or diploe, andeventually the vascular tissue become red bone marrow

The endochondral method is used to produce the bone where?

below the skull

The endochondral method is used to produce the bone below the skull. It starts with a ___________ cartilage framework. The cartilage structure is surrounded by _____________, which becomes more vascularized and turns into periosteum. This increase in blood flow sends a signal to the underlying cells to differentiate into osteoblasts, and the process of ossification begins

hyaling, periosteum

1st step of The endochondral method

the osteoblasts form a bone collar around the diaphysis, or central shaft, of the cartilage structure. This will be used to stabilize the structure as we dig into it.

2nd step of The endochondral method

chondrocytes within the matrix hypertrophy and start to secrete alkaline phosphatase. This calcifies the matrix and kills off the chondrocytes, as they stop getting nutrients. The matrix start to deteriorate, opening up a cavity

3rd step of the endochondral method

the periosteum will invade the cavity in the form of a periosteal bud, bring with it arteries, veins, lymph vessels, nerve fibers, osteoblasts andosteoclasts. The osteoclasts are used to get rid of bone material, to open up the cavity more, and the osteoblasts will create new bone material.

4th step of the endochondral method

the bone elongates and the medullary cavity is formed by having the bone grow where there is still cartilage material. It grows towards the epiphysis, or end of the bone, becomes calcified, and then deteriorates.

5th step of the endochondral method

Secondary ossification centers arise in the epiphyses of the bone. In longbones, this occurs with another periosteal bud in large long bones, but othersbones will develop differently, with only a primary ossification center. Eventually, the only cartilage that will be left will be found on the end of the bone and in the epiphyseal plates, between the diaphysis and the epiphyses.

The two types of bone growth are

longitudinal(length) and appositional(width)

This type of growth is accomplished by means of the epiphyseal plate, the left over cartilage. At the end of the plate closest to the epiphysisis the quiet zone, where things are not very active. Just below that is the growth zone. This are has very mitoticly active cells, dividing and pushing the epiphysis away from the diaphysis. Below this area is the hypertophic zone, where once again cells are enlarging. As they do so, calcification is again taking place. Ossification occurs below this area. This can continue until the bottom of the plate catches up to the top. When this happens, the entire epiphyseal plate is turned into bone and becomes the epihyseal line/disc

longitudinal bone growth

this is when bone is placed next to other bone and causes widening of the bone. The osteoblasts of the osteogenic layer lay it down on the outside of the layer, and the osteoclasts take it away from the inside of the bone. Since more is laid down than is taken away, the bone grows

APPOSITIONAL bone growth

Growth of bone is controlled by hormones. The major hormone is Growth Hormone, which leads to ______________. This is a growth factor released from the liver in response to growth hormone. It stimulates growth of the epiphyseal plate. Also involved are testosterone and estrogen, which come into play in puberty and cause a growth spurt

(MACRO) the end of a bone

(MACRO) the shaft of a bone

(MACRO) the spot between the diaphysis and epiphysis. When it is still cartilage, it is known as the plate, and when it becomes bone will be called either the line or disc

epiphyseal plate, line, disc

(MACRO) connective tissue around the bone which supplies nutrients via nutrient canals and foramina

(MACRO) the membrane that is inside the medullary cavity. It contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts

(MACRO) found at the ends of the bone. This is left over hyaline cartilage from the embryonic skeleton and is used in cushioning where bones meet

articular cartilage

(MACRO) In infants this is found in many bones, but in adults it is mainly located in the head of the femur and humerus, the sternum and the hipbones. It often turns into yellow bonemarrow with a lot of fat deposits, but can revert back to red bone marrow when needed

hematopoietic tissue, red bone marrow, or blood forming tissue

(MICRO) this is the structural unit of the bone. It is made up of the following- Haversian Canal, the lamella, the osteocytes, canaliculi, and Volkman's canals

Osteons, or a Haversian system

(MICRO) which carries the blood and nerve supply through the bone

Haversian Canal

(MICRO) the layers of bone material around the canal

(MICRO) bone cell that reside in the lacunae

(MICRO) connections between the lacuna, extensions of the cells that the matrix forms around

(MICRO) connections between the osteons

Volkman's canals

new matrix material is being laid down, takes place along the osteoid seam, where the material is unmineralized, and then along the calcification front, where it becomes mineralized

performed by the osteoclasts. This is helped by a ruffled border that the osteoclasts have, as well as lysosomal enzymes and phagocytosis

Bone reabsorption

an important part of bone remodeling. It says that bone responds to stress that is put on it, compression and tension (stretch). An electrical current runs through bone when it is bent, and there is a negative charge on the side of compression, a positive charge on the side of tension. Since calcium ions have a positive charge, they are attracted to the compressed side, where more strength is needed, and the other side remains more flexible.

causes a release of calcium by activating the osteoclasts when calcium levels are too low.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

inhibits bone reabsorption and promotes the deposit of bone when calcium levels get too high.These are more concerned with the level of calcium in the blood than they are with what bone looks like

all types of fractures

Compound(open)/simple(closed), Nondisplaced/displaced, Complete/incomplete, Linear/transverse (there are more but these are major)

the bone breaks through the skin or it doesn't

Compound(open)/simple(closed)

ends are in normal position or out of alignment

Nondisplaced/displaced

bone is broken through or not

Complete/incomplete

along the long axis or perpendicular

Linear/transverse

broken into 3 or more pieces

comminuted fracture

compression fracture

spiral fracture

separates ends from the diaphysis

epiphyseal fracture

depressed fracture

incomplete break, usually in a young bone

greenstick fracture

__________ is the treatment of broken bones. Closed ____________ is when the ends can be moved back into place from the outside of the body. In open __________, surgery is required (all the same word)

(STEP OF BONE REPAIR) blood vessels are usually broken along with the bone, and this causes hemorrhaging. Bone cells start to die off because they no longer get nutrients

Hematoma (STEP 1)

(STEP OF BONE REPAIR) granulation tissue is formed (capillaries, phagocytic cells, fibroblasts, and osteoblasts). The fibroblasts produce collagen that connects the broken ends. Some of them become chondroblasts that secrete a cartilage matrix. The osteoblasts start to form a spongy bone, and also secrete an external bulging mass that becomes calcified.

FIBROCARTILAGINOUS CALLUS (Step 2)

The osteoblasts and the osteoclasts migrate inward, and change the F. callus into a bony callus

BONY CALLUS (step 3)

This step takes away material and lays down compact bone

BONE REMODELING (step 4)

Joints are where bones meet bones, also known as an ______________

There are two ways to classify a joint, either by its

structure or its function

Structurally, joints are known as

fibrous, cartilaginous or synovial

Functionally, the names of joints are

synarthroses, amphiarthroses, diarthroses

no movement joints

slightly movable joints

freely movable joints

The _______ skeleton has either slight or no movement

the ________ skeleton is freely movable

synarthroses or amphiarthroses

(FIBROUS) bone of the skull. these are made up of short fibers which later become ossified as the bones of the skull become fused as one. They are then known as synostoses, or bony joints

(FIBROUS) these are ligaments or interosseus membranes. The amount of movement varies with the length of the fibers

(FIBROUS) these are used in teeth, the periodontal ligament

(CARTILAGINOUS) an example is the epiphyseal plate. This is synarthroses, which eventually becomes a synostoses. these are also found in the ribs, with the first one being synarthroses, and the rest being amphiarthroses

(CARTILAGINOUS) in this case the articular surface of the bone is covered with hyaline cartilage, fused to a pad of fibrocartilage. These are amphiarthroses, and act as shock absorbers. They include the intervertebral joints, the symphysis pubis of the pelvis, and the manubrium and the sternum

an articular cartilage, made of hyaline (which type)

(Synovial) This is made up of an external fibrous capsule which is continuous with the periosteum, which is lined by a synovial membrane internally, which extends from one articular cartilage to the next

an articular capsule

(Synovial) This is a hyaluronic acid that is secreted by the synovial membrane. It is thinned by the interstitial fluid from blood plasma. This fluid prevents the articular cartilages from touching and minimizes friction, as well as nourishes the cartilage. It also contains phagocytic cells that get rid of debris and microbes that may invade the joint

(synovial) These help to strengthen the joint. They consist of intrinsic, which are part of the fibrous capsule, extracapsular, which are outside the capsule, and intracapsular, which are within the capsule, deep to it

reinforcing ligaments

(synovial) found in certain areas, such as the hips and the knee, for cushioning

(synovial) extend inward from the articular capsule and divide the synovial cavity. These are found in the knee, jaw and the sternoclavicular joints. They help to improve the fit

Articular discs, or menisci

(synovial) fibrous sacs that are lined with synovial membranes and contain synovial fluid. They act as a pad, like a ball bearing, and prevent friction

(synovial) similar, except they are longer and wrapped around a tendon

how well do the bones fit together. The best example of this is the ball-and-socket joint of the hip and shoulders. Bones that have flat surfaces can not use this for stability

articular surfaces

these join bone to bone. They prevent unwanted movement. They will stretch and stay stretched, and will also snap if they are stretched too far.Sprains are caused when they stretch too far or are torn. Ligaments are poorly vascularized and therefore take a long time to heal. If it is completely broken, it has to be repaired quickly before the tissue is ruined. The tissue can be repaired with tendon from another muscle or collagen fibers from cattle hide.

There is a low level of muscle activity when the muscle is relaxed. This keeps the muscle ready when called upon. When the tendons of these muscle cross over a joint, they are a major factor in keeping the joint stabilized

Movement around joints is accomplished because muscles are attached at two places, but not on the same bone. They are attached at the origin, the point that remains in place, and the insertion, which moves towards the origin. The movement is in planes (NAME THE PLANES)

transverse, frontal and sagittal planes

(type of motion) a nonaxial motion, demonstrated by flat bones that slide over each other

(type of motion) decreases the angle of a joint and usually occurs in the sagittal plane

(angular) flexion of the ankle, lifting foot

(angular) extension of the ankle, pointing toes

plantar flexion

(angular) opposite of flexion, increasing the angle

(angular) movement away from the midline, along the frontal plane

(angular) toward the midline.

(angular) all 4 of the above put together, drawing a cone in space (plantar flexion, extension, abduction, adduction)

a turning movement along the axis of the bone. May also be described as medial and lateral rotation

pronation and supination involve the movement of what?

involve the movement of the radius and the ulna

sole turned medially

sole turned laterally

anterior movement

posterior movement

protraction and retraction happens where?

the transverse plane

elevation and depression happens where?

the frontal plane

when the thumb touches the fingers

(TYPE OF SYNOVIAL JOINT) plane joints

(TYPE OF SYNOVIAL JOINT) hinge joints, which show flexion and extension, like the elbow- pivot joints, which show rotation, such as shaking the head no.

(TYPE OF SYNOVIAL JOINT) condyloid, show flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, and circumduction - the knuckle- saddle, the thumb

(TYPE OF SYNOVIAL JOINT) ball and socket where the spherical head of one bone fits in a concave area of another, such as in the shoulder and hip

This contains the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the head of the humerus, and is a ball-and-socket type joint. However, this does not contribute much to the stability of the joint. Stability is mainly gained from the tendon of the biceps brachii, as well as other tendons which form the rotator

The main stabilizing factor here is the meeting of the articular surfaces, specifically the trochlea and the semilunar notch of the ulna, or the hinge joint. The medial collateral ligament and the lateral collateral ligament also help. Flexion of the arm is stopped by the tissues of the arm and forearm, extension by the ligaments and tendon

The main stabilizing factor here is the meeting of the articular surfaces, specifically the trochlea and the semilunar notch of the ulna, or the hinge joint. The medial collateral ligament and the lateral collateral ligament also help. Flexion of the arm is stopped by the tissues of the arm and forearm, extension by the ligaments and tendons.

This is the hip, and is made up of the femur and the acetabulum. It is also a ball-and-socket joint, but it fits better than the shoulder, and is therefore less flexible. In this joint, freedom of movement is not as important.There are also strong ligaments for reinforcement

This is the knee, and contains the tibia and the femur. There are 3 different joints in one, where the patella meets the femur, and where the femoral condyles meet the semilunar menisci of the tibia. These menisci prevent side to side rocking of the femur and help to absorb shock at the knee.

The joint cavity is only partially enclosed by the capsule. The synovial membrane extends further up and under the tendon of the quadriceps, forming a bursa that prevents rubbing of muscle on bone. The joint is stabilized by extracapsular and intracapsular ligaments. also known as the ________ ___________(intra)

cruciate ligaments

The bones found in the infant skull are formed by the intramembranous method. They are not completely ossified when the child is born, and these are as are known as ________, soft areas between the bones. These allow for compression of the head during birth and growth of the brain. The Frontal _______, found between the frontal and parietal bones, is the last to be replaced, somewhere between 1.5 to 2 years

This disease has gained a lot of notoriety in recent years, as the population ages and people are living longer.In most cases we hear about it striking women, but men can get it too. Its just that women are 3 times as likely to develop it. At the end of a long life, a woman's skeleton will be between 50 to 80% as dense as when she was young, a man's between 80 and 90%.

Throughout our lives we perform a balancing act of bone deposit v. bone reabsorption. Up to about __, we deposit more than we withdraw. Then we start going downhill. Eventually, if we live long enough, and depending on the base we have to start from, the bone becomes thinner, more porous and lighter. It has the same chemical makeup, but is more likely to fracture

The main culprit for women is estrogen. Estrogen prevents the osteoclasts from working as well as they can. After menopause, the osteoclasts will start to destroy the bone material at an accelerated rate. For this reason, many people think estrogen replacement is a good strategy to prevent osteoporosis. In fact, only .625 mg /day may be effective. However, it has to be taken long term, as many as 7 to 10 years, or longer, for it to protect. And while estrogen replacement is also good at reducing heart disease, it may also lead to an increase risk of breast cancer and endometrial cancer

The best strategy is to start off with a good base before we get too old. That means taking in a lot of calcium. Estimates would range from _____ mg all the way up to _______ mg, depending on the age, whether a women is pregnant or nursing or post-menopausal. (A glass of skim milk has 300 mg) Calcium supplements can be used, such as certain antacids. Check supplements for elemental calcium.

People who are at risk for this disease include women, Caucasians, lightweights, smokers, drinkers and anyone with a family history. ________ women naturally put more stress on their bones, and they show less signs of the disease.

One of the ways of treating the disease is with _____________. This stimulates new bone growth, but also causes nausea, stomach cramps and ankle and knee pain. These symptoms stop when taken off the medicine, and don't come back if out back on a lower dose.

sodium fluoride

Another way of treating osteoporosis is with ____________

this refers to soft bones. Osteoid material is laid down but not calcified. The bones become soft, bend and deform. In children this leads to rickets. In this case, the bones are still forming, but they have no framework to go by so they grow abnormally. Treatment for this would be vitamin D supplements and sunshine

This is excessive and abnormal bone reabsorption and formation. The person ends up with lots of woven bone, less compact bone. There is less mineralization, and therefore weakening of the bone. Later, osteoclasts stop working, osteoblasts continue to work, and the bones thicken. This could be caused by a virus

Paget's Disease

the most common form, it is caused by the normal wear and tear on the joints. For this reason, it is most often seen in older people. The articular cartilage found in the joints wears off, and the bone under gets thicker and forms spurs. The spurs invade the joint space. This makes the jointless flexible, stiffer, and painful. Aspirin is used for treatment

this is an autoimmune disease, where the body attacks itself. This may be caused by a virus or bacteria. The first step is attack of the synovial membrane, and in time the whole of the joint is attacked, and swelling occurs. Pain and restriction of joint movement are signs, and in severe cases the ends of the bones that make up the joint may be fused together.It can be treated with anti-inflammatory drugs and immune suppressives

Rheumatoid arthritis

caused by excessive uric acid build up, either because of a rich diet, excessive production or slow clearing of uric acid

Gouty arthritis

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