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Learning Vocabulary with Mnemonic Devices and Examples

Terms in this set (58)

Learning
It is a change in either a mental process or behavior that lasts as a result from some kind of experience.

Sabra going through "flight training", taking ski lessons, and reading a textbook are all examples.
Habituation
It is when an individual learns to not respond to a stimulus in repeated patterns. It is learning not to respond to a stimulus.

If you live in the city, you may learn to ignore the loud noises.
Mere Exposure Effect
It is when a preference is learned to certain stimuli that an individual has been exposed to prior.

The effectiveness of advertisements is an example of this.
Behavioral Learning
It is a king of learning, it includes operant conditioning and classical conditioning, and they can all be explained/described in the terms of responses, as well as stimuli.

The experiment where Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate to the tone of the bell after originally salivating to the food is an example of this.
Classical Conditioning
It is a kind of behavioral learning, where a prior stimulus considered neutral gains the power to show/have the same (effects) innate reflexes that another stimulus produces.

An example of this would be how animals learn to be conditioned to specific cues that allow them to eat, avoid danger, etc.
Neutral Stimulus
It is a stimulus that has no conditioned response before learning. In an experiment, it is known as a conditioned stimulus (CS). It is assumed conditioning, even if only a small amount, occurs after just one pairing of the CS and UCS (the unconditioned stimulus).

An example would be tone or light in looking at the reflex of a baby to grab your finger when you place it in their palm.
Unconditioned Stimulus
It is seen in classical conditioning, it is the stimulus that has an unconditioned response, also known as the UCR.

In Pavlov's experiment, food would be the UCR in producing salivation in the dogs.
Unconditioned Response
It is seen in classical conditioning, and it is the response seen from an unconditioned stimulus with no previous learning.

The reflex of salivation when the dogs saw the food in Pavlov's experiment would be an example.
Acquisition
It is the stage of learning in classical conditioning, where the conditioned response becomes seen by the conditioned stimulus.

In Pavlov's experiment, an example of this would be the learning to salivate whenever there was a sound of the bell (which they associated with the food).
Conditioned Stimulus
It is also called the CS and is seen in classical conditioning where a stimulus that was neutral prior gives the response as the conditioned response. In conditioning experiments, the neutral stimulus is called this when paired first with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

In Pavlov's experiment, it would be the bell tone since it didn't originally cause salivation in the dogs.
Conditioned Response
It is also called the CR, it is when in classical conditioning, a response occurs to a prior neutral stimulus that is now associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

The salivation of the dogs in Pavlov's experiment is an example of this when it was caused by the ringing of the bell.
Extinction
In classical conditioning, it is when a conditioned response is weakened by an absence of an unconditioned stimulus.

For Pavlov, this would be if the bell rang without the food being present for many times.
Spontaneous Recovery
It is when a conditioned response that has been extinguished reappears after a delay in some time.

An example of this, for Pavlov, would be if the dogs began to salivate when hearing the bell tone after much time has went by and extinction training has already occured.
Stimulus Generalization
It is the extension of a response that has been learned to stimuli that is similar to the conditioned stimulus.

It would be if someone was attacked by a pug, they may be fearful of all dogs because of this experience, rather than being afraid of only the pug that attacked them.
Stimulus Discrimination
It is a change in responses to one singular stimulus, but not to stimuli with many similarities (similar stimuli).

Pepsi and Coke would be an example of this because they were very similar but are differentiated from one another.
Taste-Aversion Learning
It is a tendency, biologically, that is when an organism learns after only one experience to avoid a certain food with a specific taste, if following consumption of it, illness is seen.

An example of this would be when I got sick after eating my favorite soup, so I avoid the soup.
Operant
It is a voluntary behavior that can be observed and it's behavior is done to have an effect on the environment or for it to almost "operate" on it.

An example of this would be reading your textbook to get a good grade in a class.
Operant Conditioning
It is a type of behavioral learning where a response's probability changes due to specific consequences or the stimuli that follow this rule.

If someone gets a good grade on a test they studied for, they will continue studying because of its association to reward.
Reinforcer
It is a condition, that involves either the removal or presentation of a stimulus that happens after a response occurs so that the response is strengthened.

An example of this would be if you are training your dog to lay down and your dog does lay down then you would give it a treat to strengthen this behavior. In this scenario, the treat would be representative of this term.
Positive Reinforcement
It is when a stimulus is presented after a response occurs that increases the possibility that the response will occur again.

An example of this would be training your dog to sit by rewarding them a treat every time they correctly sit down to increase the possibility they will sit again.
Negative Reinforcement
It is when an unpleasant/adversive stimulant is removed during the same time a specific behavior is occurring. It is done to strengthen the chance that the behavior will happen again.

An umbrella is used to avoid downpour, which allows an individual to not get wet.
Continuous Reinforcement
It is a schedule of reinforcement, where every correct response is reinforced in some way, shape, or form.

If you want to teach your dog to roll over, you would give them a treat every time they correctly roll over.
Intermittent Reinforcement
It is a kind of reinforcement schedule where some of, but not every, correct response is reinforced, It may also be referred to as partial reinforcement.

If you are training your dog to roll over, you may only give them a treat after every fourth correct response.
Ratio Schedule
It is a program where reinforcement is dependent on the amount of (number of) correct responses.

If employees are paid on the specific amount of work they perform that would be an example of this.
Interval Schedule
It is a kind of program, where the reinforcement is dependent upon the amount of time that has gone by since the last time of reinforcement.

An example of this would be if a student studies for a weekly quiz every week.
Fixed Ratio Schedule
It is a program where reinforcement is dependent upon a specific, unchanging number of responses.

An example of this would be people who play slot machines, because of the involvement of time associated between wins on a machine.
Variable Ratio Schedule
It is a type of reinforcement program where the amount of or number of responses needed for a reinforcement vary from trial to trial.

An example of this would be if someone was paid one dollar for every 20 backpacks they sell.
Premack Principle
It was a concept created by David Premack, that said an activity that is more preferred can be utilized to reinforce an activity that is much less preferred.

An example of this would be if a child was told they could have a playdate with a friend if they clean up their room.
Punishment
It is an adversive stimulus, that happens or takes place after a response, and lowers that response's strength.

An example of this would be when parents take away a misbehaving teenaer's phone.
Insight Learning
It is a kind of cognitive learning that was the first described by the Gestalt psychologists and it showed that sudden perception reorganization allows problem solving to occur.

An example of this would be the problem about the bird stuck in a hole and being able to randomly come up with the solution to fill the hole slowly with water.
Cognitive Map
It is a mental representation of a specific physical space.

An example of this would be how I can walk from my room to the kitchen with my eyes closed.
Observational Learning
It is a type of cognitive learning where a new response is acquired (learmedO after watching others complete the behavior and find/see the consequences.

An example of this would be when everyone started wearing tennis skirts last year and they became trendy, so I bought a bunch of them.
Long-Term Potentiation
It is a kind of biological process that involves physical changes that strengthen the groups of nerve cells synapses, which is thought to be learning's neural basis.

An example of this would be how many animals have a simple neural circuitry so they learn basic behaviors and people have more detailed neural circuitry so they can learn more advanced hard behaviors as their neural synapses are stronger.
Fixed Interval
It is a program or schedule where reinforcement is dependent or contingent on a specific fixed amount of time.

An example of this would be when an employee gets a paycheck at the same time every month.
Variable Interval
It is a program or schedule where the amount of time between trails varies and changes (it is random).

An example of this would be fishing, as the time between catches of fish varies and is random.
Positive Punishment
It is the addition of an undesirable or aversive stimulus following a response. It makes a behavior less likely to occur in the future.

An example of this would be if you put your hand on the hot stove and you burned your hand and was in pain. You likely won't place your hand on the hot stove again.
Negative Punishment
It is when a desirable stimulus is removed after a response which then decreases the likelihood of that behavior happening again. It is also referred to as omission training.

An example of this would be if someone was being snooty to their parents, so their parents take away their teen's car keys. They likely will not be snooty the next time.
Associative Learning
It is a kind of learning that involves specific events that occur with one another or together.

An example of this would be in classical conditioning, when you put two stimuli together. So in Pavlov's experiment it would be the meat powder and the bell.
Higher-Order Conditioning
It is when a conditioned stimulus in a single classical conditioned experience is matched up and paired with another neutral stimulus, which then creates a second conditioned stimulus.

An example of this would be how Pavlov made the dog expect food and predict it with a tone, then a light is expected before a tone, where eventually the light predicts and expects the food.
Ivan Pavlov
He was a Russian physiologist that studied the digestive systems of dogs in 1899. He was measuring how much saliva was put out when food/food powder was put in the dog's mouths and then he found that when a researcher would walk in the room the dogs would salivate. He looked at the connection between stimulus and response. He was a behaviorist and studied classical conditioning.

An example of this would have been when Pavlov realized that he had conditioned his dogs to salivate when a bell rang as when the bell rang it was followed by the meat powder.
John Watson
He found that human emotions and behaviors are influenced biologically but they are essentially a big bunch of conditioned responses. His experiments were very unethical and he asked if classical conditioning could be utilized to remove negative emotional responses. He is associated with the Little Albert experiment.

An example of this would be his experiment where he paired a neutral stimulus, a fluffy rat with a loud sound for a little baby, Albert. Albert eventually began to cry when soly placed with the rat because of the association to the loud sound and also became afraid of other fluffy things like a coat, santa mask, rabbit, etc.
Preparedness
It is the idea that every species has predispositions that prepare it to be able to learn association that can enhance their chances of survival.

An example of this would be taste aversion, so like I ate this one dessert in elementary school with strawberries and this crusty paper-like stuff and was sick after. So, now if I see the crusty paper stuff I avoid it and feel sick when seeing it. My body associates it with being sick, even if it didn't make me sick so I won't eat it anymore since my body thinks it is poison. It is trying to protect me.
Garcia and Koelling
They found that organisms more readily learn responses that they are biologically prepared to learn, that enhance their species survival. They exposed rats to water that tastes like plastic and exposed them to radiation, the radiation caused them to be sick but they avoided the water after being sick. They found that the UCS did not have to immediately follow the CS/NS and that this is biologically adaptive. The food had to have a salient taste though, they worked with taste aversion. They worked with biological preparedness.

An example of this would be if a person ate a grape jolly rancher and caught the flu the same day. After they become sick, they might avoid the grape jolly rancher because they associated it as poison and as what made them sick.
Contingency Theory
Wagner and Riscorla worked with this. It basically says if this happens, then something else happens. One thing has to happen for another second thing to occur.

An example of this would be if a tone was played before a shock every time but a light flashed before the tone every once in a while, the organism will react to the tone but not to the light.
Edward Thorndike
He researched operant conditioning. He found that organism's associated a behavior with that behaviors consequence. He laid down the operant conditioning for Skinner.

An example of this would be when he put a cat in a puzzle box with a locking mechanism on the outside of the box. The cat had to hit the lever outside the box, leave the box, and then get the food. The cat's didn't understand and finally accidentally got it after like 45 minutes, then it did it again and it took them like 5 minutes, then 2 minutes, then 30 seconds. It is done by trial and error at first, but then the cat learned the consequences to it's behavior.
Law of Effect
It said that behaviors followed by desirable/favorable consequences became more likely to occur and behaviors followed by undesirable/unfavorable consequences become less likely to occur.

An example of this would be the cat puzzle box where they found that if they clicked the lever they would be able to get a treat so the behavior of touching the lever became more likely to occur and began occurring quicker than before.
Operant Chamber
It is also referred to as a Skinner Box and it is a box that holds a key or bar that can be manipulated by an organism so they can receive water or food reinforcement. It also records the number of times the bar or key was pressed.

An example of this would be when this box is used to test operant conditioning and the effects that reinforcements have on laboratory organisms.
Shaping
It is when something has to be done a lot, where successive approximations toward a behavior are rewarded. If you get close to a behavior, it is reinforced.

An example of this would be when kindergarten teachers teach students how to get into a straight line by the door. At first they reward the kids for getting in a big bunch by the door. Then they do it again and they are somewhat like a line so they are rewarded, this continues slowly until a single-file line by the door is formed.
Instinctive Drift
It is the tendency for a learned behavior to gradually change and revert back to a biologically predisposed pattern.

An example of this would be when the rats played basketball, if they stopped being constantly reinforced and rewarded, they will stop playing basketball.
Intrinsic Motivation
It is a desire to perform a behavior effectively/well for one's own sake, it is doing something for yourself.

An example would be that I like dancing for its own sake and for myself.
Extrinsic Motivation
It is when an individual has a desire to perform a specific behavior so that they can receive rewards they were promised and avoid punishments that were threatened.

An example of this would be when in elementary school if you read 10 books in a month, you would get a coupon for a free personal pizza. You do it to receive a promised reward.
Overjustification Effect
It is when rewards interfere with an individual's intrinsic motivation. It is over justifying something and it happens when someone already has intrinsic motivation for something but then it is rewarded, the intrinsic motivation can (may not always) be lost and then it is replaced by extrinsic motivation.

An example of this would be reading for enjoyment in elementary school and then as you move to middle school and high school you are doing it for a grade rather than for yourself and just to read. It is usually why most teens do not like to read once they begin to be graded on it.
Learned Helplessness
It is when an individual becomes hopeless when they are unable to avoid repeated undesirable events. It has to do with perception and lack of control, it is very correlated to depression.

An example of this would be when there was a group of dogs with electrified harnesses that they could not control or escape the shocks of, so when placed in a room where only half of the floor shocked them, they did not attempt to escape to the other side of the floor. They took the shocks and gave up.
Problem-Focused Coping
It is alleviating stress and coping with a stressor directly by changing the stressor and how it is interacted with. It is the best choice, but is harder.

An example of this would be if you get in an argument with your friend so you man/woman up and talk to them and tell them your feelings to resolve the problem.
Emotion-Focused Coping
It is coping with a stressor or alleviating stress by avoiding the stressor and attending to the emotional needs associated with the stress instead. It is the easier choice, but not the better one. The stressor does not go away.

An example of this would be talking bad about the person you are in an argument with with the people in the group chat without the person you are angry at.
Modeling
It is the process of observing and then imitating a certain behavior. It is like monkey see, monkey do.

An example of this would be the Bobo doll experiment Bandura did. Adults were violent and aggressive with the toy, so the children were also aggressive and violent with the doll.
Prosocial Behaviors
It is a helpful, constructive, positive behavior.

An example of this would be if someone's best friend is continuously helpful and kind, then they are more likely to be kind and helpful.
Violence Viewing Effect
It is the desensitization and imitation that occurs after viewing a behavior considered antisocial (against society).

An example of this would be how people can go to bed after watching Criminal Minds, they should have to watch a fun show but some would say that it is their comfort show. They are desensitized to it and the violence involved in it.
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