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psy 320 final

Terms in this set (127)

9/11 study on flashbulb memories: at what time intervals were participants asked to match up 2 events
7 days, 42 days, 224 days
9/11 study on flashbulb memories: what were the results
as time increased, flashbulb memory confidence also increased even if the memories were inaccurate
flashbulb memory consistency
no effect on maintaining consistent over time
confidence in memories difference
everyday memory confidence decreases w time and flashbulb memories increase w time
What makes chunking easier
prior knowledge
The ____ one knows about a subject, the _____ it is to learn more about it
more; easier
chess player study: what was it?
people who played w no regularity vs ranked chess masters were gathered and shown either a legal or illegal board for 10 sec. and asked to put pieces back where they were
chess player study: legal board results?
chess masters remembered perfectly, novices didn't
chess player study: illegal board results?
chess masters and novices both could not remember; all prior knowledge didn't matter since it was an illegal board
How do we reconstruct our memories?
to fit with our views of the world
what is schema
organized knowledge structure in long-term memory
what can schema lead to
the remembering of things associated but didn't occur w an actual event
bartlett and the war of the ghosts study: what was it?
read story twice to kids, asked them to remember verbatim, came back a year later and asked them to remember it again
bartlett and the war of the ghosts study: results
kids remembered well at first, but not after a year
bartlett and the war of the ghosts study: pattern of results
mistakes that were made were swapped for a schema that was familiar
what happens as memory changes over time
things not remembered are replaced with schema-reliant info
Nancy going to doctor study: what was it?
two groups of participants were made; one told that Nancy was going to doctor (theme group), one told that Nancy was going to doctor to see if she was pregnant; then asked how many details they could remember w/o using schema-reliant memories
Nancy going to doctor study: results
theme group had more accurate memory but had high false memory
What is elaborative rehearsal?
connecting new material to things already stored in memory
keyword method:
find familiar word that sounds like foreign word, form image linking both; used to learn foreign vocabulary words
retrograde amnesia
loss of info from long term memory, can't access episodic memory; can be permanent but can re-learn info and move on with life
anterograde amnesia
loose ability to code new memories, much more debilitating
Clive Wearing
hippocampus was destroyed by viral encephalitis, destroyed ability to create new memories; could not remember anything after 1 min 30 seconds; convinced that he has only just regained consciousness
doctor-patient example of anterograde amnesia
doctor saw patient for yrs., eventually shook his hand with thumbtack and patient refused to shake hands again but didn't know why
what memories can be remembered with anterograde amnesia
pain memories
malingered amnesia
faking it; tests this through pain situations (shock example)
Korsakoff's syndrome
severe form of anterograde amnesia associated with severe chronic alcoholism
confabulations:
positive stories that they believe previously occurred in life but never did
confabulations are common with what syndrome
Korsakoff's
Disociative Identity Disorder
priming does not occur; rare; linked to early childhood trauma specifically with childhood sexual abuse by bio parent
inter-identity amnesia
one identity claims amnesia for events experienced by other identities
after certain levels of trauma, inter-identity amnesia causes
brain to fracture into diff identities
false memory study in adults: what was it
collected family images, showed both three images of things that happened in their life and one false image of them in air balloon; asked if people remembered all four images occurring
false memory study in adults: results
at beginning, 30% said yes; over time, one 50% said yes; memories at third interview were detailed even though it never happened
false memory study in adults: debrief reaction
some didn't believe that it was fake; all participant agreed that even tho they know it was fake, they'll always remember it based on pics shown
false memory study in kids: what was it
preschool kids questioned about events that really happened and false events, wanted to see if kids could convince adults of false memories
false memory study in kids: results
adults could not tell difference between when kids were lying vs telling the truth
false pain memory study in kids: what was it
asked kids if they remembered pain memory that never happened, repeated weekly
false pain memory study in kids: results
almost 60% of kids remembered pain event after 10 wks
false memories in kids and adults: easy or hard?
easy
source monitoring
determining the source of a memory; eventually come to believe that source of event was the memory, not what the actual source was
what leads to source misplacement
sense of familiarity
face test phase- what was it
have you studied this face?
famous overnight study: what was it
showed 50 faces- "are they famous or not" after studying the 50 faces of both famous and unknown people; asked immediately and after 24 hours
famous overnight study: results
immediate- few errors
24 hr delay- often identified studied faces, but unknown faces as not studied were deemed famous
what is main issue with eyewitness testimony
limits of encoding
limits of encoding
high arousal does not allow for detailed, accurate encoding of events
in eyewitness testimony, why are memories often inaccurate
attention is often displaced (weapon focused)
Decision making:
selecting path from two or more courses of action
the monty hall problem: what was it
provide game players with 3 doors: which has new car?; choose a door, instead of opening selected door, it shows a door with a goat behind and asks if player would like to choose a new door or stick with original
the monty hall problem: result
10,000 including 1,000 PhDs said to stick w original; if u switch, there is 2/3 chance of winning instead of 1/3 chance with staying
the monty hall problem: key component
new information
three main subsets of human irrationality
satisficing, illusory correlations, ignoring sample size
Satisficing
selecting first choice above a certain threshold; set of criteria used to make decision, often select first viable option and cut everything else short
satisficing leads to
sub-optimal decision making
illusory correlation
believing two events are correlated when they are not
examples of illusory correlations
superstitions, weather and arthritic patients
ignoring sample size
the number of people measured can have a large impact on the outcome
ignoring sample size study: what was it
2 hospitals: 45 babies born per day at larger, 15 at smaller; 50% of all babies born are boys, varies daily; asked which hospital has weirder days (more than 60% boys daily in 1 year)
ignoring sample size study: results
majority said there would be little difference between the two; smaller hospital is correct answer
gambler's fallacy:
false idea that proportions should be even in the short run
narrative theories: what is it and what are the two types
one choice is better than another; expected value and expected utility
expected value
probability x dollar Amt; choosing one w greatest expected value (50% chance of winning $50)
expected utility
personal value we attach to outcomes
how is expected utility evaluated
based on what it means to person regardless of financial value
framing effects
the way a problem is described impacts the solution
framing effects disease study: what was it
disease is expected to kill 600 ppl, originally given 2 programs to choose from to fight disease: option A- save 200 ppl for sure, option B- 1/3 chance all 600 will live, 2/3 chance everyone will die
alternately given 2 other programs: option A- 400 ppl will die, option B- 1/3 chance that all survive, 2/3 chance all will die
framing effects disease study: results
original options: 72% chose option A; alternate options: 72% chose option B; both options are identical, yet answers flipped
wason selection task: what was it
each card has letter and number on either side; if a card has a D, other must have a 3, what card should you flip to verify?
wason selection task: what did it demonstrate
people don't use logic to pick stuff
sunk costs
investment spent unwisely that cannot be reversed; continue to put $$ in simply bc you've already put a lot of time, energy, etc., into it
examples of sunk costs
concord flights, toxic/abusive relationships, a bad movie
What can affect a decision outcome
adding new choices to the decision process
adding choices to decision process example: what was it
can have $6 or "elegant Cross pen", asked students to pick one; added new nonviable choice: $6, elegant Cross pen, or inferior Bic pen
adding choices to decision process example: results
originally 64% students picked the $6; after adding nonviable choice there were statistically significant changes
choosing restaurant example
choice between 5-star restaurant far away, 3-star restaurant near by, ppl chose 3-star; added nonviable choice: 4- star further away than 5-star, ppl then chose 5-star
cognitive dissonance
"I knew it all along" fallacy; psychological tension that occurs when behaviors don't match attitudes/when you violate your views/beliefs
festinger and carlsmith study: what was it
subjects do boring tasks, asked to lie to "next participant" that activity was SO FUN, got paid either $1 or $20; asked on scale of 1-10 how much did you hate it
festinger and carlsmith study: results
people who got $1 ranked higher than $20 people; prove that $1 participants changed attitude to make themselves think they didn't waste 2 hours and lie for no reason
grasshopper study
asked participants nicely to eat grasshopper in one condition, other condition bullied them into eating it, asked how much each condition enjoyed it; bullied ppl had positive opinion
what does cognitive dissonance prove
behavior comes first and then attitude
what can psychological tension cause people to change
attitudes to match behavior after uncomfortable situation
how do we make decisions?
algorithms, heuristics
algorithms
step by step procedures that guarantee a solution, take a long time
heuristics
not guaranteed to be correct but allows for quick problem-solving
subsets of heuristic decision making
representativeness, availability
representativeness heuristic
if something is consistent with our world view, we believe it to be more likely
representativeness heuristic is based on
semantic memory system
representativeness heuristic study: what was it
family w 6 kids, 72 fams had GBGBBG, asked them to estimate number of fams that had BGBBBB
representativeness heuristic study: results
mean response was 30 fams bc two sequences do not appear equally representative; both have same probability
Availability heuristic
if you can remember real event of something occurring, you are more likely to believe it will occur again
what is availability heuristic based on
episodic memory
availability heuristic premature death study
which is more likely to cause premature death: list A (tobacco, obesity, alcohol) or list B (cancer, heart disease, car crashes); List A is correct yet participants chose list B
availability heuristic words with "n" and "ing" study
in 2000 words, how many do you think have "n" as 2nd to last letter or 7 letter word ending in -ing; "n": 1-2 words, -ing: 8-9 words; asking for same thing in both questions yet diff answers
definition of problem solving
a set of given info, a set of operations, a goal
a set of given info-
description of issue
a set of operations-
permissible moves or actions
a goal-
a description of what constitutes a solution
problem space
a representation of a problem w all possible states and associated operations
methods for problem solving
brute force search, analogies, verbal protocols
brute force search
try everything to find correct answer, useful when problem space is relatively small
analogies
using knowledge from prior problem to solve new problem
The castle study and inoperable stomach tumor problem prove what
people don't spontaneously use previous solutions as analogies to solve new problems
Guy going into cave, how does he not get lost? survey results
75% americans could solve due to stories like Hanzel and Gretel, 25% for Chinese
verbal protocol
solve a problem through talking it out loud
insight problems
answer to problem seems to come out of nowhere as "lightbulb" moment of creativity; chimpanzee getting banana example
4 steps used to solve insight problems
preparation, immersion, illumination, verification
preparation-
familiarizing self with problem
immersion
unconscious mental activity that leads to illumination; keep working on problem continuously in the subconscious, causing "lightbulb" moment
illumination-
insight occurs and a creative solution is articulated
verification
ensuring the acceptability of solution
Nine dot problem brought about which phrase
think outside of the box
functional fixedness
ability to use objects in a manner for which they were not intentionally to be used
dumper's candle problem
find way to attach candle to wall with only candle, thumbtacks, and match box; one variable with full matchbox, one with matchbox empty w matches to the side; matchbox empty ppl had better results
properties of language
communicative, arbitrary, structured, generative, dynamic
communicative property of language
ability to communicate info to another animal
arbitrary property of language
could create own new language with new symbols and words
structured property of language
new symbol and sound placement is key, must have structure
generative property of language
can generate a limitless number of meanings
dynamic property of language
language is constantly changing
how do we understand language
phonemes and analysis
phonemes
individual speech sounds
we are all born with what ability
ability to recognize speech sounds from languages worldwide
two types of language analysis
surface structure and deep structure
surface structure
literal meaning of sentence
deep structure
implied meaning of sentence
a sentence can have _ surface structure(s) with ____ deep structure(s)
one; several
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