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Social Psych Exam 2 Part 3

Terms in this set (55)

The more choices you have, the more unhappy you will be with any given choice. This statement defines what Schwartz and colleagues (2002) have called


post-decision dissonance.


the A-B problem.


the tyranny of choice.


belief perseverance.
the tyranny of choice.
The mere exposure effect refers to the tendency for people to


come to like something simply because other people like it.


come to like something simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly.


come to think that something is common, or prevalent, simply because they like it.


come to think that something is common, or prevalent, simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly
come to like something simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly.
According to cognitive dissonance theory, "we come to love the things we suffer for." For example, we tend to be especially loyal to groups that require severe or painful initiations. Why does this happen?


This happens because the goals themselves (the things that we suffer for) are actually always very valuable... otherwise, we wouldn't have suffered for them in the first place.


This happens because, deep down, people really like to suffer.


This happens because we are motivated to justify the time and effort we've spent on things.


This happens because classical conditioning is at play: when we finally reach our goals, our suffering ends. We therefore associate our goals with "end of suffering" and come to love them.
This happens because we are motivated to justify the time and effort we've spent on things.
Which of the following statements about why humans have attitudes is TRUE?


Attitudes are an evolutionary artifact that were useful a long time ago.


Attitudes increase the complexity in making decisions.


Attitudes make it harder for people to adapt and adjust to new situations.


Attitudes aid humans in making decisions and choices.
Attitudes aid humans in making decisions and choices
According to the textbook, the drive for consistency is


likely to be rooted in our biological nature.


likely to involve the conscious mind only (and not the unconscious mind).


far more prevalent in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures.


far more prevalent in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures.
likely to be rooted in our biological nature.
How does the notion of effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance?


Effort justification is a type of cognitive dissonance.


Effort justification is often a result of cognitive dissonance.


Effort justification is often a motive for cognitive dissonance.


Effort justification is often used to reduce cognitive dissonance.
Effort justification is often used to reduce cognitive dissonance.
As discussed in the textbook, people who hold irrational attitudes (e.g., about Big Foot, UFOs, and ghosts) tend to


be less prone to depression than other people.


be less prone to anxiety than other people.


have relatively low levels of self-esteem.


have relatively high levels of self-esteem.
have relatively low levels of self-esteem
Comparing oneself to people who are worse off is called a(n)


downward comparison.


upward comparison.


post-decision dissonance.


effort justification.
downward comparison
__________ refers to the feeling of discomfort that people experience when they recognize inconsistencies among their behaviors and/or attitudes.


The A-B problem


Attitude polarization


Intradiction


Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance
Which of the following is NOT a proposed solution to the A-B problem?


effort justification


behavioral aggregation


broad attitude in context


attitude accessibility
effort justification
The idea that beliefs play a central role in helping people cope and recover from misfortunes is called


balance theory.


dual attitude theory.


belief perseverance.


cognitive coping.
cognitive coping
One technique that advertisers often use to influence consumers is celebrity endorsement. The logic works like this: If people like Catherine Zeta-Jones and repeatedly see T-Mobile products together with Catherine Zeta-Jones, then people will learn to associate T-Mobile with her and will in turn like T-Mobile more. That is, celebrity endorsement is expected to lead to


operant conditioning.


classical conditioning.


the mere exposure effect.


observational learning.
classical conditioning
The so-called A-B problem refers to the fact that


people are not always aware of the factors that influence their feelings toward things.


people are not always aware of their feelings toward things.


people's emotional responses are not always in sync with their behaviors.


people's stated attitudes are often inconsistent with their behaviors.
people's stated attitudes are often inconsistent with their behaviors
Implicit attitudes can be defined as __________ evaluative responses.


controlled, conscious


controlled, nonconscious


automatic, conscious


automatic, nonconscious
automatic, nonconscious
In terms of how it is experienced, cognitive dissonance MOST closely resembles


an emotion or feeling of arousal.


a gap in memory.


an eerie feeling akin to déjà vu, clairvoyance, or communicating with ghosts.


intense cognitive focus (i.e., being "in the zone").
an emotion or feeling of arousal.
Much research has demonstrated a weak link between (a) what people say their attitudes are, and (b) how they actually behave. According to the textbook, one of the key reasons that this relationship is so weak, however, is the fact that researchers have often


tried to relate very general attitudes to very specific behaviors.


tried to relate very specific attitudes to very general behaviors.


limited their research in this area to very sensitive topics (e.g., sexual attitudes and behaviors), where attitude-behavior inconsistencies are especially likely to occur.


limited their research in this area to topics that research participants are unlikely to care much about (e.g., the number of minutes they will spend on a particular experimental task), where attitude-behavior inconsistencies are especially likely to occur.
tried to relate very general attitudes to very specific behaviors
Research suggests that the idea that "familiarity breeds contempt"


is almost always true, regardless of the circumstances.


is almost always false, regardless of the circumstances.


is almost always true, unless people initially have a very favorable attitude.


is almost always false, unless people initially have an unfavorable attitude.
is almost always false, unless people initially have an unfavorable attitude.
Which of the following statements is MOST accurate?


Evaluation of information occurs only via the automatic system.


Evaluation of information occurs only via the conscious system.


People are not able to take in information without passing judgment about whether or not that information is correct.


The process of taking in information is separate from the process of evaluating information
People are not able to take in information without passing judgment about whether or not that information is correct.
Zelda says that she likes dogs and that she is not afraid of them. But she gets visibly tense whenever a dog approaches, and refuses to visit any of her dog-owning friends at their homes. It appears that even though she says she likes dogs, Zelda has a negative __________ toward them.


explicit attitude


implicit attitude


conditioned attitude


unconditioned attitude
implicit attitude
Jerome thinks that it is going to be crowded at the gym today. This is an example of


a dual attitude.


a belief.


an implicit attitude.


an attitude.
a belief.
According to cognitive dissonance theory, discrepancies between attitudes and behaviors produce


unpleasant memories.


psychological discomfort.


pleasant memories.


psychological comfort.
psychological discomfort.
Social psychology as a science can


help refute most religious beliefs.


speak to which religious beliefs are true and which are false.


explain why some people accept or reject certain religious beliefs.


determine which religion is the correct one.
explain why some people accept or reject certain religious beliefs.
Social psychologists use the word __________ to refer to how people deal with traumas and return, post-trauma, to healthy, effective functioning.


recalibrating


revalidating


monitoring


coping
coping
Research on religious beliefs shows that appealing to a higher (superordinate) power can be an effective way to reduce __________.


the mere exposure effect


belief perseverance


attitude polarization


dissonance
dissonance
In Fritz Heider's balance theory, balance is synonymous with


consistency.


happiness.


efficiency.


understanding.
consistency
When advertisers need to help sell a low-quality product, they often make ads that use loud music and distracting images (as opposed to ads that explicitly and straightforwardly discuss the features of the product). This is probably a good strategy because it is likely to foster __________ processing of the ad's claims, and in turn to __________.


automatic, encourage emotional attachment to the product


automatic, prevent people from doubting the validity of the claims


conscious, encourage emotional attachment to the product


conscious, prevent people from doubting the validity of the claims
automatic, prevent people from doubting the validity of the claims
Research suggests that the mere exposure effect


is unique to humans (does not occur among other animals).


occurs via the conscious system only.


is unique to humans (does not occur among other animals) AND occurs via the conscious system only.


is NOT unique to humans and does NOT occur via the conscious system.
is NOT unique to humans and does NOT occur via the conscious system.
As discussed in the textbook, there are a number of cognitive tendencies found among gamblers that have the effect of encouraging these people to keep gambling. One of the MOST common is the tendency to see losses as


"near wins" (not losses at all).


"par for the course" (as a certain number of losses are expected).


"practice runs" (helping to improve technique in the long term).


"not their fault" (special exceptions due to circumstances).
"near wins" (not losses at all).
In Aldous Huxley's book Brave New World, infants develop a fear of books after books are repeatedly presented with a scary loud noise. In this fictional example, the loud noise is


a conditioned stimulus.


a conditioned response.


an unconditioned stimulus.


an unconditioned response.
an unconditioned stimulus.
In distinguishing between beliefs and attitudes, it is useful to recognize that beliefs help people __________ while attitudes help people __________.


explain things, make choices


make choices, explain things


rationalize occurrences, explain things


explain things, rationalize occurrences
explain things, make choices
The Implicit Association Test ("IAT") works by measuring the speed with which people are able to associate different pairs of concepts. According to the logic of the test,


the faster the associations, the stronger the attitudes.


the slower the associations, the stronger the attitudes.


the faster the associations, the more positive the attitudes.


the slower the associations, the more positive the attitudes.
the faster the associations, the stronger the attitudes.
Which of the following statements is MOST accurate regarding how people form evaluations of other people and of other stimuli?


People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of other people within the first few microseconds of meeting them; but they do not do this for other stimuli (e.g., nonsense words).


People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of most stimuli (e.g., nonsense words) within the first few microseconds of experiencing them; but they do not do this when meeting new people.


People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli (e.g., other people, animals, shoes) if they have encountered similar stimuli in the past; but they do not do this when stimuli are highly unfamiliar or unclassifiable.


People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli, regardless of their familiarity with those stimuli.
People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli, regardless of their familiarity with those stimuli.
Attitude polarization refers to the finding that


when people reflect on a given attitude, their position on that attitude tends to become more extreme.


when people reflect on a given attitude, they tend to become more open-minded with respect to that attitude.


people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have extreme views about than issues that they have moderate views about.


people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have moderate views about than issues that they have extreme views about.
when people reflect on a given attitude, their position on that attitude tends to become more extreme.
Research using the Implicit Association Test ("IAT") to investigate implicit anti-elderly (pro-younger-people) biases has found that


both younger people and older people are biased against the elderly, but older people are even more biased than younger people.


both younger people and older people are biased against the elderly, but younger people are more biased than older people.


both younger people and older people are (about equally strongly) biased against the elderly.


younger people are biased against the elderly, whereas older people are biased against younger people (and both biases are about equally strong).
both younger people and older people are (about equally strongly) biased against the elderly.
Consider all of the research on cognitive dissonance theory. What does this research suggest about the role of large, expensive marriage ceremonies?


Such ceremonies probably strengthen partners' commitment due to effort justification.


Such ceremonies probably discourage marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family.


Such ceremonies probably strengthen partners' commitment due to effort justification AND probably discourage marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family.


Such ceremonies probably DO NOT strengthen partners' commitment due to effort justification and probably DO NOT discourage marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family.
Such ceremonies probably strengthen partners' commitment due to effort justification AND probably discourage marriage-inconsistent behaviors such as cheating due to the involvement of friends and family.
Research indicates that women show less attitude-behavior consistency than men when it comes to sexuality. As discussed in the textbook, this is mainly because


compared to men, women hold much more puritanical attitudes about sex.


compared to men, women hold much more open-minded attitudes about sex.


women's sexual responses are more context-dependent than men's.


men tend to be the initiators of sexual activity.
women's sexual responses are more context-dependent than men's.
The tendency for people to hold on to their beliefs-even when their beliefs are discredited by compelling evidence-is known as


cognitive dissonance.


belief perseverance.


the A-B problem.


cognitive stickiness.
belief perseverance.
Research on post-trauma coping indicates that one of the WORST possible things-in terms of predicting post-trauma recovery-is for people


to blame themselves for the trauma.


to feel like there is no explanation at all for the trauma.


to feel like the trauma was fated, or predestined.


to believe that many other people have experienced similar traumas.
to feel like there is no explanation at all for the trauma.
Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing those behaviors. This type of learning is known as


instrumental learning.


social learning.


classical conditioning.


operant conditioning.
social learning.
Attitude accessibility refers to


how easily the attitude comes to mind.


how the attitude fits in the larger cognitive structure of belief.


the tendency for attitudes to become more extreme upon reflection.


the tendency to like something more with more exposure to it.
how easily the attitude comes to mind.
Who has the MOST accessible attitude?


Zoe, who has to think for a while about whether she favors the death penalty or not.


Shawna, who doesn't care one way or the other about the death penalty.


Diti, who has very extreme views about abortion.


Lira, who can tell you right away her opinion on abortion.
Lira, who can tell you right away her opinion on abortion.
__________ are pieces of information, facts, or opinions; __________ are broad evaluations toward some object or issue.


Attitudes, associations


Associations, beliefs


Attitudes, beliefs


Beliefs, attitudes
Beliefs, attitudes
Explicit attitudes can be defined as __________ evaluative responses.


controlled, conscious


controlled, nonconscious


automatic, conscious


automatic, nonconscious
controlled, conscious
The results of Festinger and Carlsmith's (1959) study of cognitive dissonance suggests that


if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more.


people will rationalize their own questionable behavior no matter how much they are paid to do it.


if people are paid more for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more.


if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it less.
if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more.
According to the principles of __________ people are relatively likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and relatively unlikely to repeat behaviors that have been punished.


classical conditioning


operant conditioning


vicarious learning


associative learning
operant conditioning
Which behavior best summarizes the textbook's conclusion about attitude-behavior consistency?


Attitudes predict behavior with near perfect accuracy.


Attitudes are a useless concept, with little to no predictive value.


Attitudes are consistent with behavior in most situations.


Attitude can predict behavior, just not with the simplicity or prevalence originally thought.
Attitude can predict behavior, just not with the simplicity or prevalence originally thought.
Research has demonstrated that __________ can be formed via classical conditioning.


both implicit attitudes and explicit attitudes


neither implicit attitudes nor explicit attitudes


implicit attitudes but not explicit attitudes


explicit attitudes but not implicit attitudes
both implicit attitudes and explicit attitudes
In one well-known study that was conducted during an era of anti-Chinese prejudice (LaPiere, 1934), a researcher drove across the U.S. with a Chinese couple, stopping at dozens of restaurants, hotels, auto camps, and tourist homes. He was interested in attitude-behavior consistency. Specifically, he was interested in knowing the percentage of establishments that would serve the couple, as well as the percentage of establishments that would say that they would serve the couple when contacted later. What did he find?


Nearly 100% served them; and roughly 90% said they would.


Nearly 100% served them; but only about 10% said they would.


Only about 10% served them; but about 90% said they would.


Only about 10% served them; but nearly 100% said they would.
Nearly 100% served them; but only about 10% said they would.
Which of the following is the BEST example of social learning?


You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.


Every time you wear the poncho you purchased in Mexico, you think fondly about the time that you spent there.


You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.


After going to the same dentist for many years, you develop a fondness for your dentist and for the other people who work in her office.
You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.
Which of the following is the BEST example of the mere exposure effect?


Eduardo starts to think that a new band is cool simply because other people around him think it is cool.


Keisha starts to like a girl at school simply because she has seen her, semester after semester, in so many of her classes.


Michael loves hip hop music. As a result, he tends to overestimate how much other people like to hip hop.


Frances works in a hospital, and encounters doctors and nurses all day long. As a result, she tends to overestimate how many people work in the medical industry; to her, it seems like almost everyone does!
Keisha starts to like a girl at school simply because she has seen her, semester after semester, in so many of her classes.
Research on post-trauma coping suggests that-contrary to what many people think-blaming oneself for a trauma can, in some cases, help people recover. This seems to be because self-blame causes people to _________.


minimize the magnitude of the trauma.


seek out social support.


reflect on their life priorities.


feel a greater sense of control and empowerment.
feel a greater sense of control and empowerment.
Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. Suppose that he programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. This is MOST clearly an example of


classical conditioning.


operant conditioning.


the mere exposure effect.


social learning.
classical conditioning.
Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory most directly suggests that we will be more attracted to potential dating partners who __________ than potential dating partners who __________.


are physically attractive, are not


play "hard to get", don't


are similar to us, are not


flatter us, don't
play "hard to get", don't
As defined in the textbook, dual attitudes consist of


implicit attitudes and explicit attitudes.


conditioned attitudes and unconditioned attitudes.


cognitions and emotions.


beliefs and opinions.
implicit attitudes and explicit attitudes.
Suppose that Hal and Peyton both hate Victor. According to balance theory (P-O-X theory), if the relationship between Hal, Victor, and Peyton is balanced, then


Victor must like Peyton.


Victor must like Hal.


Hal must like Peyton.


Peyton must dislike Hal.
Hal must like Peyton.
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