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HIS 116 Chapter 8 Terms: The Consolidation of Nation-States

Terms in this set (20)

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- Otto von Bismarck - Prussian prime minister; argued Prussia was admired as leader not because of political principles, but military power; believed Prussia must maintain military readiness
- nationalism - loyalty to state; began during French Revolution
Italian Unification
- 1848 revolution in Italy failed to create unified state; Austrians (northern) and French were in control; full Italian unification achieved in Kingdom of Piedmont (Sardinia)
- Count Camillo Cavour - minister of Piedmont-Sardinia; strategy for unification involved building power of Piedmont by modernizing economy; creating modern state would remove Austrians
- Piedmont joined Britain/France in war against Russia (Crimean War) to win their support for unification; French aided
War with Austria
- 1859 Cavour declared war with Austria; initial military success did not last; Napoleon III feared Prussia might intervene on behalf of Austria (signed armistice with Austrians)
- southern Italian Kingdom of Two Sicilies took action against Bourbon king, Francis II; led by Giuseppe Garibaldi; attacked Rome/Cavour intervened
Venetia and Rome
- Cavour died; pope Pius IX controlled city of Rome; Austria still ruled Venetia
- could not have independent Italy without Rome as its capital; war between Prussia/Austria solved problem: Italy sided with Prussians and was rewarded with Venetia; France's defeat over Rome led to fall of Napoleon III/end of French involvement in Italian affairs
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- hopes were raised that new government would provide education, jobs, improve standards of living; expectations never met; illiteracy rates remained high/taxes raised
- Prussia declared war on Denmark over territories of Schleswig/Holstein; Austria drawn in on side of Prussia; Denmark defeated
War with Austria
- Austria viewed itself as leader of German Confederation
- many states of Confederation entered into Zollverein (customs union) that abolished tariffs; Austria did not accept union
- Bismarck quarreled with Austria over leadership of Schleswig/Holstein; gained support from Italians by supporting province of Venetia
- Austria declared war on Prussian neighbor; Prussian military technology/troop mobility led to defeat of Austrians; under Treaty of Prague - Prussia expelled Austria from German Confederation/annexed number of smaller German states that supported Austria in conflict (Bismarck resisted the call)
- government found new North German Confederation that featured legislative assembly (Reichstag) whose members were elected by universal manhood suffrage; legislature was denied control over military/budget
- transformation in Prussian political culture in aftermath of war - abandoned constitutional government/joined call for greater political/cultural unity
War with France
- Bismarck was Germany's "Iron Chancellor"
- Napoleon III/French were alarmed at rise of Prussian power; when Spanish crown offered to cousin of Prussian King William I, French insisted German candidate decline offer; led to crisis
- Bismarck edited telegram that Prussian king insulted French ambassador; was made public; infuriated French public opinion
- Bismarck's quarrel with both Austria/France possessed greater resources/military might; south German states aided northern neighbors; French emperor captured/Paris forced to surrender in 1871
- German princes declared William I was now emperor of unified German empire
War and the Nation-State
- nationalism was force in second-half 19th century
- wars that occurred after Napoleon's fall in 1815 were brief affairs thanks to military superiority; casualties light; impact of wars were light
- despite use of modern rail to move men, fighting was small geographic area; civilians did not suffer
- middle-class businessmen believed military conflict disrupted business channels/opportunities for trade; businesses lost money in war
- aristocrats/elites less troubled by conflict (military officers/held seats in legislature); concerned with war/training for war; foreign policy, issues of war/peace left to monarchs and advisors
- strongest nations were best nations; military drill/discipline
- long periods of peace weakened national spirit
- warfare was mean of national advancement
Bismarck 1870-1890
- Germany was national power in Europe; had significant political power
- was chancellor until 1890; government was culture committed to glorification of state, not individual rights; turned attention to challenges in country with rapid industrialization
- viewed political parties as selfish interest groups
- campaign against Church called Kulturkampf (struggle for civilization); convinced that German Catholics (40% of population) owed allegiance to pope
- for liberals, Church was enemy of state; Bismarck supported and expelled Jesuits from Germany/favored state education over religious schools
- German Catholics fought back by organizing Center Party (largest party in Reichstag, elected branch of parliament)
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- Bismarck attacked German socialists arguing that members of Social Democratic Party (SPD) were untrustworthy nationalists, since they believed in working class
- effort to weaken socialism among working class - supported legislation to address problems from industrialization
- his "state socialism" - improved quality of life, but did not marginalize SPD
- SPD adopted Erfurt Program - re-affirmed Marxist faith in destruction of capitalism
- Bismarck entered negotiations with Pope Leo XIII; accepted agreement that ended religious bigotry
Kaiser William II and German Power
- 1888 William II succeeded; clashed with Bismarck over foreign policy/antisocialist campaign; believed best way to win allegiance of German worker was to provide evidence of German greatness through aggressive policy overseas
- antisocialist legislation allowed; SPD became biggest Marxist political party
- German industrial growth rivaled (Britain and U.S.); lives of workers improved; economic/military growth
Second French Empire
- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1873) came to power in France after failed 1848 revolution; promised to restore order to country torn between political radicals and conservative peasantry; established coup d'etat
- Napoleon III - cracked down on opposition groups, censored press, denied legislature political power
- press restrictions removed, individual liberties guaranteed, unions permitted, prisoners pardoned
- Paris re-built into urban showpiece
- charity hospitals/facilities for elderly
- for first time after defeat of Napoleon I, France became significant military force beyond its borders
- Napoleon joined Britain in Crimean War against Russia in 1853; intervened in Italy on side of Piedmont; attempted to establish Maximilian (Hapsburg prince) as Emperor of Mexico (ended in disaster when Maximilian was executed by Benito Juarez)
- entered military conflict with Prussia
Third French Republic
- French pride wounded from Prussian army in 1870; capture of Napoleon at Sedan sealed fate of Second Empire
- Paris - began as refusal to accept armistice with Prussians became rejection of French government;
- "Paris Commune" - campaign against Germans (cut off supplies to countrymen)
- to end war, France gave Alsace/Lorraine to German Empire
- to re-gain control of Paris, government forces attacked; humbled by Germany and torn apart by civil war, France in 1871 was divided between monarchists/republicans
- republicans set up Third Republic
- chronic instability; liberals/conservatives introduced reforms (education at primary level/new military force)
Domestic Crisis
- Third Republic - tested by 2 political crises in late 19th century
- first was integrity of Republic - General George Boulanger undertook campaign to restore authoritarian; defenders of government placed on defensive; failed to win popular support/fled in 1889
- second was integrity of French justice system - Jewish army officer accused (falsely) of selling military secrets to Germans; Captain Alfred Dreyfus sentenced to Devil's Island (penal colony), known as Dreyfus Affair; during trial, anti-Semitism swept country
- 3 decades prior to WWI, France's economy did not match that of Britain/Germany; nation of artisans/peasant farmers, labor unions were small, behind in welfare/regulation of workplace conditions
Democracy in Britain
- world's leading industrial power
- monarchy under Queen Victoria (1837-1901) - power shifted to House of Commons, where 2 major parties, Liberals/Conservatives existed
- Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli expanded electorate votes/hoped to win support of working/lower middle class
- Liberal Party under William Gladstone won control of House of Commons; monopoly broken, examinations to serve in government, secret ballot introduced; his reform program sought to create society where skill determined opportunity
- Disraeli used state power to solve social problems; Gladstone focused on individual initiative
- Gladstone - reform bill where 2/3 of males could vote; party leaders visited cities during political campaigns; political journalism arose (newspapers accompanied candidates)
- Gladstone - attempted to address demands of Irish who called for end of British rule in Ireland
- Britain's Trades Union Congress founded Labour Party - advance political interests of working class; was the Fabian Society (socialist organization); sought to convince countrymen to achieve ownership of means of production in peaceful manner (book called Evolutionary Socialism by Eduard Bernstein)
- socialists were tiny party in Britain before WWI; major parties responded to working class demands
- Parliament Act of 1911 - limited veto of Lords
- British voters saw political democracy/industrial capitalism as key to global power
Hapsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Empires
- Prussia's victory over Austria in 1866 signaled eclipse of Hapsburg leadership within German Confederation; reflected power of nationalism
- Austrian Empire represented several different populations; owed allegiance to Hapsburg emperor, Francis Joseph
- during second half of 19th century, culture led non-German subject groups to challenge imperial structure
- used secret police/military vs. modest reforms of bicameral parliament with elective lower house (Joseph); no steps taken to integrate non-Germans
- Church controlled education
- after Prussian victory in 1866, Joseph made political concessions to the Magyars of Hungary (most powerful non-German group)
- compromise (Ausgleich) - Austria/Hungary split under Joseph (named king of Hungary/emperor of Austria); Magyars won control of internal affairs; Austria/Hungary had separate parliaments
- Austria-Hungary - unable to use nationalistic banner to solidify popular support for government or promote industrialization; multiethnic state based on loyalty to Hapsburgs
Russia 1861-1914
- European power; territorial expansion focused on East
- after defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Russian influence expanded; harsh control of Poland/regulated Ottoman Turks; Christian people of Balkans signaled Russia's desire to be recognized as power
- 1854-1856 - British/French defeated Russians in Crimean War
- Alexander II - abolished serfdom
- Russia's peasant population deteriorated; serfs secured legal freedom, but did not get land; portions of land that peasants worked as serfs became property of village (farmers fell into debt)
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- Alexander II - established political counsils, encouraged the establishment of primary schools, reforms in military, reduced terms of enlistment; refused formation of national legislative assembly
- led to formation of terrorist cells - People's Will assassinated him
- Alexander III 1881-1894 - expanded powers of secret police, censored press, persecuted minority groups in Russia (Jews); committed government to industrialization
- government sponsored railroads/industrial plants; encouraged foreign investment; French eager to form alliance with Russia, financed, which led to foreigners owning much of industrial plant in Russia
- emergence of small industrial working class
- leader of Marxist exiles was Lenin (1870-1924) - future leader of Communist Revolution in Russia; after exiled to Serbia, spent years in Switzerland organizing for revolution; wrote What Is to be Done (call to establish small party leaders who could guide peasant Russia to revolution)
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- revolution seemed unlikely because Russia had small amount of industrial workers
- Nicholas II - new tsar; not sympathetic to political reform; his government pursued expansionist policy in Asia at expense of Japan
- 1904 - 2 countries clashed in Russo-Japanese War; Russia defeated on land/sea
- middle class angered at absence of constitutional government; tsar set up national parliament, called Duma; tsar controlled foreign policy/military affairs
Ottoman Failure
- Ottoman state struggled to maintain holdings in Balkans
- ruled over multiethnic/religiously diverse population
- spread of nationalistic ideas threatened integrity of Muslim empire
- nationalism had most disruptive impact on territories that were Christian; beginning with Greece, series of Balkan rebellions/wars against Turkish rule
- war between Russia/Turkey resulted in Turkish defeat - met in Berlin and recognized independence of Serbia, Montenegro, Romania
- in 19th century, Europe's great powers were threat to Ottomans
- sultans - leaders of largest Muslim empire
- Ottoman military strength predicated on acquisition of new territories; once expansion stopped, so did resources
- empire lacked middle class; to finance activities, government contracted loans; became so indebted that sultans created Ottoman Public Debt Administration (staffed by foreigners/collected revenues from monopolies)
- 20th century foreign investors controlled Ottoman banking, railways, mining
- military coup led by army officers, called "the Young Turks" ousted Abdul Hamid II; installed successor named Muhammed V, but efforts to cultivate sense of Turkish nationalism failed
- people resented old hegemony of Turks
- "Young Turk" leadership was in constant crisis/war
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