Adipose cells
Cells appear to be empty but contain fat molecules.
Fat molecules push the nucleus off to one side.
Main organs of Digestion
Mouth (2) & oral cavity (1)
Esophagus (9)
Stomach (10)
Small intestine (11)
Large intestine (6)
Oral Cavity
(1)
Mechanical processing:
Teeth
Tongue
Uvula
Produce enzyme to digest carbs:
Salivary glands (7)
Digestion function
Physical & chemical digestion (break down molecules)
Absorption (get nutrients into blood)
Modify nutrients (liver)
Digestion purpose (energy)
Carbs (nutrients) become fuel
Fuel is monosacaride (simple sugar)
Energy is in the chemical bonds that hold molecules together
Break apart molecule to release energy
Digestion purpose (function)
Life is series of chemical reactions
Enzymes are catalyst for chem. reactions
Every reaction (cellular function) requires right enzyme
Proteins + vitamins = enzymes
Vitamins used to make cells function properly
GI Tract lining
Epithelial tissue with villi (2) and goblet cells
Lined with mucosa (1)
Lubricates
protects us from digesting ourselves.
Muscularis Externa
(3)
Smooth muscle layer:
Outer layer - longitudinal muscles - peristalsis
inner layer - circular muscles - segmentation
Peristalsis
Longitudinal (smooth) muscles (5) provide directional contractions
Move food through digestive tract
Segmentation
Circular (smooth) muscles (4) provide contractions that squeeze & release
Mixes food with digestive juices
bolus
A mass of food that has been chewed at the point of swallowing.
Digestion begins when it reaches the stomach.
Mesentery
(7)
Connects parietal & visceral layers.
Thin membranous material found between the folds of the small intestine.
Fan shaped
Dorsal side: 6-8"
Ventral side: 20'
Holds abdominal vescera in place but allows movement
Blood vessels, nerves and lymph, embedded between 2 layers, are involved in absorbing nutrients form the small intestine.
Extension of peritoneum
Mesentery (sag.)
(2)
Connects parietal & visceral layers.
Fan shaped
Dorsal side: 6-8"
Ventral side: 20'
Holds abdominal vescera in place but allows movement
Allows for passage of blood vessels, nerves and lymph between 2 layers.
Extension of peritoneum
Peritoneum
Lining of abdominal cavity
Not part of GI tract but holds it in place.
Parietal peritoneum (5) - membrane lining peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum (4) - membrane surrounding organs (2)
Mesentery (1) - connects parietal & visceral layers, extension of the peritoneum.
Greater Omentum
(9)
mesentery that extends from the greater curvature of the stomach and drapes over the intestines like an apron.
Anterior to intestines
Extension of mesentery.
Stores lipids (fats)
Tongue
Manipulates food to back of mouth for swallowing
Muscle covered with chemoreceptors
Taste receptors highly concentrated in specific areas on surface
Attached by lingual frenulum
Has papillae on dorsum (superior) surface:
Filaform papillae (1)
Fungiform papillae (2)
Circumvallate papillae (3)
Also used to form words
Filaform papillae
(1)
No taste buds
For friction - to help manipulate food
Has many touch receptors - tip is very sensitive
Fewer temperature receptors - burn easily
Circumvallate papillae
(3)
Approx. 7-9, arranged in V-shape
Located on posterior portion
Have up to 100 taste buds each, send impulse via facial nerve
Taste
mostly involves smell.
Bitter
Sour
Sweet
Salty
Umami
Taste receptors are located all over mouth, uvula and pharynx but more highly concentrated in these areas.
Teeth
2 Sets
Deciduous set (baby teeth), 20
Permanent set (adult), 28-32 (some don't get wisdom or molars)
Enamel
(4)
Hardest substance produced by the body
Only formed when tooth is made
Must last lifetime
Doesn't go into neck (2) - where deterioration occurs
Cementum
(9)
Cements tooth to bone
In peridontal joint (synarthrosis, non-movable joint)
Held with connective tissue fibers, must break fibers to pull teeth.
Amylase
Produced by the salivary glands
Enzyme that changes carbs (polysaccarides-many monosaccarides) into disaccarides, and then into monosaccarides (single sugar-glucose)
Starch contains many polysaccarides (if chew long enough it breaks down to monosaccaride and begins to taste sweet)
Parotid Salivary gland
(2)
Largest
Most active - produce more spit
Located at angle of mandible, near masseter
Has perotid duct - opens into mouth cavity near second upper molar
Submandibular salivary gland
(3)
Lateral to sublingual (1)
Ducts enter floor of mouth (where we gleek)
Mumps
A virus that attacks the perotid salivary gland.
In adults it can attack the pancreas and gonads (causing sterility)
Esophagus
(9)
10-11" long
Empties into stomach (10) at hiatus (inferior to diaphragm)
Opening called esophageal sphincter
Made of smooth muscle
Smooth muscle creates peristaltic action, moving food into stomach
esophageal sphincter
(1)
The lower sphincter of the esophagus that opens to allow food to enter the stomach.
Also called cardiac sphincter because of location.
Stomach
Functions:
Temporary food storage (3-4 hours)
Mechanical (physical) digestion
Chemical digestion:
produces an enzyme that will digest protein
food digested from the outside - where in contact with digestive enzymes, HCI & pepsin
Produces "Intrinsic factor"
Food enters through esophageal sphincter
then into fundus, body, pylorus
then passes through pyloric sphincter and enters small intestine.
Stomach (temporary food storage)
Capacity: 1-1.5 liters
Can stretch:
The more you overeat, the larger it gets
The larger it gets the more you must eat to feel satisfied
Stomach (mechanical digestion)
Mixes food with chemicals
Can contract in any direction due to 3 muscle layers wall:
Circular (4)
Longitudinal (3)
Oblique (13)
Stomach (Chemical digestion)
Produces 2 chemicals:
HCI - hydrocloric acid
Made by parietal cells in wall of stomach
weakens chemical bonds
lowers threshold to allow reaction to take place more easily
Pepsin - enzyme
Made by Chief cells
1st of several proteolytic enzymes (protein digestor)
Breaks apart protein
Protein = chains of amino acids (300-3000)
Type of protein we make makes us different from each other
Intrinsic Factor
produced in the stomach
Chemical that stimulates erthropoiesis (production of RBC)
Fundus
(16)
The large rounded portion of the stomach that expands the most with food.
Nearest the spleen.
Gastric Rugae
(12)
Folds (muscular ridges) in wall of stomach that allow it to expand to accommodate food.
HCI (hydrocloric acid)
Part of chemical digestion of stomach
Produced by parietal cells in wall of stomach
weakens chemical bonds
lowers threshold to allow reaction to take place more easily
Pepsin
Part of chemical digestion of stomach
Made by Chief cells
1st of several proteolytic enzymes (protein digestor)
Breaks apart protein
Protein = chains of amino acids (300-3000)
Type of protein we make makes us different from each other
Small Intestine
Longest part of digestive tract, approx. 20' long, 2: diam.
Produces numerous enzymes that will digest protein and carbohydrates.
Where digestion (& absorption of nutrients) occurs
peristalsis pushes material through
3 parts:
Duodenum (1)
Jejunem (3)
Ileum (7)
Duodenum
(3)
approx. 10-12"
first curve of small intestine
Recieves chyme (partially digested food) from stomach
Stimulates:
pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes
liver to secrete bile
Received bile and enzymes through hepatophancreatic sphincter
Jejunum
(3)
Second part of small intestine
approx. 8' long
most of digestion and absorption occurs here
secretes enzymes from cells in wall
Ileum
(7)
Last part of small intestine, connects to the cecum of the large intestine.
approx. 12 ' long
Digestion & absorption of whatever didn't get digested or absorbed previously
Secretes enzymes
Intestinal Vili
(1)
Found lining the jejunem & ileum
Finger-like projections
Surface of each is columnar cells (3) with goblet cells (4)
Where nutrients are absorbed
contains:
Capillary loop
lacteal (4)
Capillary loop in intestinal villa
(5)
comes from Superior or inferior messenteric artery, embedded in the mesentery tissue
goes to liver through hepatic portal
Absorbs:
Digested carbs (monosaccarides)
Digested proteins (amino acids)
Lacteal
(3)
Absorbs digested lipids (fats) in lymph
passes from lymphatic vessel (9) into bloodstream and recombines to form triglycerides (3 fatty acids)
Large intestine
NO DIGESTION OCCURS HERE
Water absorption
Peristalsis pushes material through.
Approx. 5' long, 3" diam.
Consists of:
Ascending colon (3)
Transverse colon (2)
Descemdomg colon (13)
Muscles:
circular (lobes)
Taenia (longitudinal)
Function:
Temporary storage/excretion of digestive waste
Absorbs water
Houses bacteria involved in making vitamins: B complex, K
Propels waste to the anal region
Hepatic Flexure
(right colic flexure)
(1)
The bend of the large intestine from the ascending colon to the transverse colon.
Splenic flexure
(left colic flexure)
(15)
The bend of the large intestine from the transverse colon to the descending colon.
Haustra
(12)
Folds that allows for distention, lobes formed by circular muscles.
performs peristaltic action.
Taenia coli
(11)
Ribbon of smooth muscle that extends the length of the large intestine.
Longitudinal (smooth) muscles of colon
2-3 running the length of each section of the colon
perform peristaltic action in the colon.
Function of large intestine (colon)
1) Temporary storage/excretion of digestive waste:
Food not digested or absorbed
Foreign substances not digested or absorbed
2) Absorbs water
3) Provides vitamins:
B complex (all B vitamins)
vitamin K (important in clotting-makes clotting proteins)
Vitamins produced from resident bacteria (E. coli) in colon
E. coli
Found in large intestine
Processes undigestable carbohydrates (celuose-in cell wall of plants)
Fiber (found in raw plants) helps colon work properly
Produces:
B complex
vitamin K
Methane (from processing fiber)
Pancreas
(19)
Digestive gland
Inferior & posterior to stomach
Produces numerous digestive enzymes
Secretes through pancreatic duct (11) into duodenum
Enzymes digest carbohydrades, proteins and fat.
Partly exocrine - external secretion (enzymes secreted through duct (14 & 18))
partly endocrine - internal secretion (hormones (insulin) secreted through vein)
Liver (structure)
2 major lobes: Right (1-largest), Left (7)
2 minor lobes: located posterior
Contains:
falciform ligament (4), membrane that separates right & left major lobes
round ligament (9), was umbilical vein in embryo (fetal scar)
Liver (functions)
1) Produces/secretes bile (not an enzyme)
2) Produces proteins
3) Destroys old RBC (along w/ spleen), RBC live 120 days
4) Erythropoiesis (makes RBC) in embryo
5) Interconversion of nutrients (transamination & deamination)
6) Neutralize toxins
7) Stores iron, fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), and Glycogen
Bile
Produced in the liver by hepatocytes
Stored in the gall bladder
Does not digest
Emulsifies fat (lipids) - breaks into smaller droplets, increases surface area for digestion
(like homogenization - add substance that breaks fat into smaller droplets that wont glob back together)
Clotting proteins
Prothrombin and Fibrinogen
Produced by liver
Blood doesn't clot until chemicals are released
Fibrinogen turns into fibrin
Need vitamin K for clotting
Erythropoiesis
Produce RBC
Done in liver during embryo stage
After birth, RBC produced in bone marrow
Interconversion of nutrients in Liver
1) Transamination: convert one amino acid into another kind
2_ Deamination: break down amino acids if there is an excess of protein intake (turns to waste)
During starvation body deaminates itself
3) change fats into carbs
too much carbs - becomes fat
too few carbs - convert fat to carb for energy
4) change fructose & galactose to glucose (monosaccarides)
Glucose in the only form cells can burn
Common bile duct
(9)
Bile passes from here through the hepatopancreatic sphincer and into the duodenem
Pancreatic duct
(14 & 18)
Enzymes travel through this to enter into the duodenum after passing through the hepatopancreatic sphincter.
Hepatopancreatic sphincter
(12)
where the enzymes from the pancreas and the bile from the liver reach the small intestines through the duodenum.
Gallbladder
(4)
Stores bile produced by the liver, approx. 30-50ml
Contracts when bile is needed and bile enters cystic duct (5), then enters the common bile ducts, passes through the hepatopancreatic sphincter and enters the duodenum
If the hepatophancreatic sphincter is closed, bile will "back up" in the common bile duct and flow through the cystic duct into the gallbladder (filling the gallbladder).
Gustatory cells
cells that make up taste buds
send signal to brain for interpretation of taste via the cranial nerve VII (facial nerve)
Uvula
(4)
As food passes by this, a signal is sent to brain that swallowing is about to take place
Signal sent to epiglottis (10) causing it to close over opening to trachea (glottis), forcing food to enter esophagus instead of trachea
Palatoglossal (palatopharyngeal) arches
(7)
as food passes, sends signal to brain that swallowing is about to occur, causing the epiglottis to close over opening to trachea.
(Same function as uvula)
pyloric sphincter
where food passes from the stomach to the small intestines through peristaltic action
Heartburn
When a person eats too rapidly, the stomach begins to churn the food before the esophageal sphincter closes. Stomach acid can reflux into the esophagus, causing a burning sensation. (Burning is felt in area of sternum)
Hiatal Hernia
When the esophagus bulges upward through the hiatus (where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm)
Stomach ulcers
Occurs when the acid within the stomach begins to erode the lining of the stomach. This happens when the mucus cells lining the stomach malfunction and do not produce enough mucus to protect the stomach.
Duodenal ulcers
Caused by acid leaving the stomach and entering the duodenum. The duodenum does not have the same type of protection as the stomach.
Can also be caused by a bacterium , heliobacter pylori, in the duodenum Can be treated by antibiotics
Pancreat cancer
Reduces the pancreas' ability to produce insulin in the pancreatic islets. Without insulin cellular metabolism is reduced. Without cellular metabolism, the body cannot produce energy
Reduces the pancreas' ability to produce digestive enzymes in the pancreatic lobules. Without these enzymes, the process of digestion is reduced.
Gallstones
In order to produce concentrated bile, water is absorbed from the gallbladder to the blodstream. The less water in the gall bladder, the more concentrated the bile becomes. If the gallbladder absorbs excess water into the bloodstream, very high concentration of bile salts could result in crystals. Crystals can coalesce together, forming stones.
Hepatitis
Inflammation of the liver due to a virus. Infection damages liver cells, causing the enzyme to leak into the bloodstream.
Hepatitis A (infectious hepatitis) - contracted by ingesting fecal contaminated foods.
Hapatitis B (serum hepatitis) - contracted by sexual contact of infected blood and other body fluids
Hepatitis C (non-A, non-B hepatitis) - Contracted by infected blood or other body fluids.
Jaundice
When the liver malfunctions it has a difficult time incorporating bilirubin into bile. Excess bilirubing enters the bloodstream, causing the skin to appear yellow.
Bilirubin
When erythrocytes breakdown some of their components are converted to this in the liver. It becomes part of bile and is removed from the body via fecal waste.
Digestion
break down large molecules into smaller molecules that can be used by the cells of the body.
Sigmoid flexure
(10)
The bend of the large intestine from the descending colon to the sigmoid colon.
Falciform ligament
(4)
Mesentery type tissue that marks the boundary between the right and left lobe of the liver.
Coronary ligament
(5)
The falciform ligament that divides and spreads across the top of the liver, just inferior to the diaphragm.
