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Physiology Final Exam Review

Terms in this set (129)

What are the two types of synapses?
Electrical & Chemical synapses
To prevent nerve impulses from directly passing from one neutron to the next
What is the function of the synaptic cleft?
1) AP arrives at axon terminal
2) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open, and Ca2+ enters axon terminal
3) Ca2+ entry causes synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter
4) Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
5) Binding of neurotransmitter opens ion channels, creating graded potentials
6) Neurotransmitter effects are terminated by: Reuptake, Degradation, Diffusion
What are the 6 steps of synaptic cleft information transfer?
The delay needs 0.3 - 0.5ms.
What is the time needed for synaptic delay?
EPSP results in depolarization
IPSP results in hyperpolorization
What do EPSP and IPSP cause? (regarding
polarization)
Temporal: Presynaptic neuron's transmit impulses in rapid-fire order

Spatial: Postsynaptic neuron is stimulated by a large number of terminals at the same time
What is temporal and spatial summation?
Yes - > ACh.
Excitatory —> skeletal muscle.
Inhibitory —> cardiac muscle
Can a neurotransmitter be both inhibitory and excitatory?
Discharge pool & Facilitated zone
What are the zones of the neuronal pool?
Excitatory, Inhibitory, Direct, Indirect and Neuromodulator
What are the 5 functional classifications?
Cerebral hemisphere, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum
Name the four regions of the brain.
Frontal, parietal, temporal, insular, occipital
Name the five lobes in each hemisphere of the brain.
White matter, basal nuclei, cortex
Name the three components of the cerebral hemispheres.
Sensory areas, association areas, motor areas
Name the three types of functional areas.
Premotor cortex, Primary motor cortex, Frontal eye field, Broca's area
Name the four motor areas.
Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
What are the three structures of the Diencephalon?
Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
What are the 3 regions of the Brain Stem?
Alpha, beta, theta, delta
What are the types of brain waves?
Protect CNS and blood vessels, and enclose venous sinuses
Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Form partitions in skull
What are the meninges' functions?
Dura mater, Arachnoid mater, Pia mater
What are the layers of meninges?
Forms a liquid cushion of constant volume around the brain.
Gives buoyancy
Protects from trauma
Nourishes
Carries chemical signals
What are the functions of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)?
Alzheimer's
Parkinson's
Huntington's
What are the three degenerative brain disorders?
The spinal cord starts at the foramen magnum and ends at L1 or L2.
Where does the spinal cord start and end?
Dorsal horns, Vental horns, Lateral horns.
Name the three spinal roots.
Nonspecific pathway, specific pathway, posterior spinocerebellar tract
Name 3 ascending pathways.
Sensory receptors
Transmission Lines: (Nerves and their structure and repair)
Motor endings and motor activity
Reflex activity
What are the four parts of the Peripheral Nervous System?
Simple receptors of the general senses
Receptors for special senses
What are the two categories of sensory receptors?
Receptor Level: The sensory receptors
Circuit level: Ascending pathways
Perceptual level: Neuronal circuits in the cerebral cortex
What are the three levels of neural integration in the somatosensory system?
Phasic adapt quickly
Tonic adapt slowly
Pain and Proprioceptors do not adapt
Phasic, Tonic, Pain and Proprioceptors adapt in what way to stimuli?
Pattern Recognition
What is the ability to recognize patterns in stimuli?
Extreme changes of pressure and temperatures
Chemicals released from injured tissue
Analgesic System
What are pain receptors activated by?
Mature neurons are amitotic meaning they no not divide
Why is the damaging of nerve tissue dangerous?
12 pairs
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
Trochlear nerve
Which cranial nerve's name means "pulley"?
Vagus nerve
Which is the only cranial nerve to extend beyond the
head and neck to the thorax and abdomen?
31 pairs
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, Coccygeal.
What are the five regions of spinal nerves from superior to inferior?
Ventral roots contain motor (efferent) fibers from ventral horn motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscles.
Dorsal roots contain sensory (afferent) fibers from sensory neurons in dorsal root ganglia that conduct impulses from peripheral receptors.
What is the difference between ventral and dorsal roots?
Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, Sacral
What are the main plexuses of the body where nerves are innervated?
Area of skin innervated by the cutaneous branches of a single
spinal nerve.
What is a dermatome?
Motor: muscle fibers that are descending efferent circuits

Sensory: ascending afferent circuits
What is the main difference between the motor and sensory systems?
Segmental: lowest level
Projection: controls spinal cord
Precommand: highest level
What are the three levels of motor control?
A reflex arc refers to the neural pathway that a nerve impulse follows.
1) Receptor
2) Sensory neuron
3) Integration center
4) Motor neuron
5) Effector
What is a reflex arc, give an example of one.
Somatic reflexes and Automatic (visceral) reflexes
What are the two classifications of reflexes?
The brain facilitates spinal reflex activity.
What facilitates reflex activity?
Length of muscle and tension of the muscle
What two things does the nervous system need to know with regards to stretch and tendon reflexes?
Intrafusal muscle spindles and extrafusal muscle spindles
What are the two types of muscle fibers?
Monosynaptic and Ipsilateral
What do all stretch reflexes have in common?
Tendon reflex
What is the opposite of a stretch reflex?
Cutaenous stimulation
What causes superficial reflexes?
Involuntary nervous system and general visceral motor system
What are two other names for the Autonomic Nervous System?(ANS)
Effectors
Efferent pathways & ganglia
Target organ responses to their neurotransmitters
List three ways the ANS differs from the SNS
Parasympathetic (rest & digest), Sympathetic (fight or flight).
What are the two divisions of the ANS?
Sweat glands, hair raising arrestor pili muscles of the skin, and smooth muscles in the walls of the arteries and veins.
What are some structures innervated only by the sympathetic division?
Efferent branch
What is the main difference between the somatic and autonomic systems?
1. Soft organ irritation
2. Visceral sensory neuron
3. Integration center
Visceral reflex arc
Cholinergic and Adrenergic.
What are the two types of receptors?
Vision, Taste, Smell, Hearing, Equilibrium.
What are the 5 special senses?
Gustation (taste), Olfaction (smell)
Describe the 2 chemical senses.
1) Fungiform papillae
2. Foliate papillae
3) Vallate papillae
What are the 3 types of papillae?
Gustatory cells (taste cells)
Basal cells (dynamic stem cells)
Name and describe the two major cells types for taste buds.
Cranial Nerves 7 (VII) and 9 (IX) carry impulses from taste buds to the solitary nucleus of the medulla.
These impulses then travel to the thalamus, and from there fibers branch to the:
❖ Gustatory cortex (taste), Hypothalamus and limbic system (appreciation of taste)
Explain the gustatory pathway.
Found in the roof of nasal cavity.
Covers superior nasal conchae.
Contain olfactory sensory neurons.
Environmental chemicals attach to olfactory epithelium and the olfactory sensory neurons send a signal towards brain.
What is the physiology of the olfactory epithelium (organ of smell)?
Olfactory receptor cells synapse with mitral cells.
Glomerular Mitral Cells process odor signals Mitral cells send impulses to:
➢ The olfactory cortex
➢ The hypothalamus, amygdala, and limbic system.
Explain the olfactory pathway.
Striate cortex processes
Prestriate cortex (association areas) processes
What are the two types of cortical processes?
Malleus, Incus, Stapes
What are three major areas of the ear and bones in the auditory ossicles
Bony labyrinth & Membranous labyrinth
What are the two Major Divisions of the Internal Ear
Menieres: Labyrinth disorder that affects the cochlea and the semicircular canals

Tinnitus: Ringing or clicking sound in the ears in the absence of auditory stimuli
What is Menieres and Tinnitus Syndrome
Scala vestibule
Scala media
Scala tympani
What are the chambers of the cochlea?
Vestibular receptors: static equilibrium
Semicircular canal receptors: dynamic equilibrium
What type of equilibrium do vestibular and semicircular canal receptors sense?
Vitreous: transmits light & contributes to intraocular pressure

Aqueous: continuously formed (unlike vitreous), supports, nourishes & removes waste
What is the difference between vitreous and aqueous humour?
Cornea, Aqueous humour, Lens, Vitreous humour, Neural layer of the retina to the photoreceptors.
What is the pathway of light through the eye?
Rods: sensitive to dim light
Cones: needs bright light for activations
What are the main differences between rods and cones?
Rods.
When going from light to dark, are rods or cones activated?
Parietal lobe/postcentral gyrus.
Which lobe processes spatial information?
Vestibule, cochlea & semicircular canals
Name the three parts of the bony labyrinth?
Maculae
Which sensory receptor organ monitors static equilibrium?
All special senses are functional at birth except for vision.
When are all special senses functional?
The primary auditory cortex & the cochlear nuclei
What is pitch perceived by?
What are the three overlapping functions of the Nervous System?
Sensory input
Integration
Motor output
The nervous system is divided into what two principal parts?
Central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
What is the difference between the sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) division?
Conveys impulses to CNS from sensory receptors (somatic & visceral fibers)
Transmits impulses from CNS to effector organs (somatic & autonomic nervous system)
What are the two cell types of nervous tissue?
Neurons (nerve cells) & neuroglia (glial cells)
What are the two types of neuron processes?
Dendrites & axons
What is the purpose of dendrites?
Receptive (input) region of neuron
Provides large surface area for receiving signals
What are the two directions of axonal transport?
Anterograde - away from cell body
Retrograde - toward cell body
What is the purpose of myelin sheath?
Protect & electrically insulate axon
Increase speed of nerve impulse transmission
What are the 3 functional classifications of a neuron?
Sensory (afferent)
Motor (efferent)
Interneurons (association neurons)
What are the two main types of ion channels?
Open (passive)
Gated channels
What is a graded potential and what are the 2 types?
Short lived, localized change in membrane potential
Receptor potential (generator potential)
Postsynaptic potential
What are the four main steps of generating an action potential?
Resting state
Depolarization
Repolarization
Hyperpolarization
What are the two types of refractory periods?
Absolute refractory period
Relative refractory period
What are the two factors of AP propagation?
Axon diameter
Degree of myelination
What are neurons functionally connected by?
Synapses
Electrical synapses are important in the CNS in:
Arousal from sleep
Mental attention
Emotions and memory
Ion and water homeostasis
What are the two parts that make up a chemical synapse?
Axon terminal and receptor region
What are the two methods of communication between neurons?
Electrical and chemical synapse
What happens during spatial summation?
Postsynaptic neuron is stimulated by the large number of terminals at the same time
Neurotransmitters are the means by which neurons:
Communicate, integrate, send messages to the rest of the body
What are the ventricles of the brain?
Lateral ventricles (Pair, C-shaped)
Third ventricle
Fourth ventricle
What are the 3 degenerative brain disorders?
Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease
What are the functions of the spinal cord?
Provides two-way communication to and from brain and body
Major reflex center: reflexes are initiated and completed at spinal cord
Which three areas of gray matter have mirror images in the spinal cord?
Dorsal horns, Ventral horns, Lateral horns
What are the three columns (funiculi) that white matter is divided into?
Dorsal, lateral, ventral
The stimulus type - photoreceptors, responds to?
Light energy
What are the 3 classifications of the PNS by location?
Exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors
What are the three types of unencapsulated simple receptors?
Free dendritic nerve endings, merkel discs, hair follicle receptors
The receptors for special senses are responsible for which exact senses?
Vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell and taste
The three main levels of neural integration in the somatosensory system are:
Receptor level, circuit level, perceptual level
What are the two types of receptors involved in processing?
Tonic receptors and phasic receptors
How much of a stimulus is acting
What is "magnitude estimation" at the perceptual level?
How does the analgesic system work?
Endorphins and enkephalins play a key role in suppressing pain
What are the three types of connective tissue coverings?
Endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium
Regeneration involves coordinated activity among:
Macrophages, Schwann cells, axons
What is the largest cranial nerve?
Trigeminal nerve (V)
Which nerve is responsible for hearing and balance?
Vestibulocochlear nerve (VII)
A copy of what type of info is sent to higher command levels in the projection level?
Internal feedback
The cells in what areas of the brain are involved in unconscious planning?
Cerebellum and basal nuclei
What is a reflex?
A rapid, predictable motor response to a stimulus
What are the two types of reflexes?
Inborn (intrinsic) and learned (acquired reflex)
What are the two types of afferent endings that send sensory inputs to the CNS in intrafusal muscle fibers?
Anulospiral endings and flower spray endings
What is the importance of stretch reflex?
Maintaining muscle tone and adjusting it reflexively
What are the two parts of the "crossed extensor reflex"?
The stimulated side is withdrawn
The contralateral side is extended
What makes up lacrimal secretion (tears)?
Dilute saline solution containing mucus, antibodies and antibacterial lysozyme
What are the three layers in the wall of the eyeball?
Fibrous layer, vascular layer and inner layer (retina)
Retina contains which three components?
Photoreceptor cells, neurons and glial cells
Vestibular receptors monitor static equilibrium
Semicircular canal receptors monitor dynamic equilibrium
What is the type of equilibrium from vestibular and then semicircular canal receptors?
What type of movement does the maculae respond to?
Responds to linear acceleration forces, but not rotation
The crista ampullaris is responsible for what type of movement?
Rotational acceleration (angular movements)
What are the three modes of input for balance and orientation?
Vestibular receptors, visual receptors and somatic receptors
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