Both asexual sporangia and zygosporangia can be found in cow dung. Make a simplified drawing that illustrates the events of plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis that occur during sexual reproduction in $Pilobolus$. Be sure to indicate and label the zygosporangium.

Traveling and tourism have been badly affected in ZIKV affected countries. What advice would you give a friend planning a trip to the Caribbean?

Suppose a friend says that we don't need to worry about the rising temperatures associated with global climate change. She claims that increased temperatures will make planktonic algae grow faster and that carbon dioxide $\left(\mathrm{CO}_2\right)$ will be removed from the atmosphere faster. According to her, this carbon will be buried at the bottom of the ocean in calcium carbonate shells. As a result, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will decrease and global warming will decline. Comment.

What does it mean to say that a hypha is dikaryotic?

a. Two nuclei fuse during sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
b. Two independent nuclei, derived from different individuals, are present in each cell.
c. The nucleus is diploid or polyploid-not haploid.
d. It is extremely highly branched, which increases its surface area and thus absorptive capacity.

Would you describe the association between $Pilobolus$ and cows as a symbiotic relationship? Explain your answer.

The hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form bushy structures after making contact with the plasma membrane of a root cell. What is the function of these structures?

a. They anchor the fungus inside the root, so the association is more permanent.
b. They increase the surface area available for the transfer of nutrients.
c. They produce toxins that protect the plant cells against herbivores.
d. They break down cellulose and lignin in the plant cell wall.

You have been hired as a field assistant for a researcher interested in the evolution of flower characteristics in orchids. Design an experiment to determine whether color, size, shape, scent, or amount of nectar is the most important factor in attracting pollinators to a particular species. Assume that you can change any flower's color with a dye and that you can remove petals or nectar stores, add particular scents, add nectar by injection, or switch parts among species by cutting and gluing.

Angiosperms such as grasses, oaks, and maples are wind pollinated. The ancestors of these subgroups were probably pollinated by insects, however. As an adaptive advantage, why might a species "revert" to wind pollination? Why is it logical to observe that wind-pollinated species usually grow in dense stands containing many individuals of the same species? Why is it logical to observe that in wind-pollinated deciduous trees, flowers form very early in spring - before leaves form?

What trait(s) define(s) the vertebrates?

A) Jaws and a spinal cord.

B) Endoskeleton constructed of bone.

C) Notochord and a post-anal-tail.

D) Vertebrae and cranium.

Suppose that a gene originally identified in nematodes (roundworms) is found to be homologous with a gene that can cause developmental abnormalities in humans. Would it be possible to use fruit flies as a model organism to study this gene? Explain.

Which of these characteristics does not apply to cnidarians?

a. are diploblastic
b. possess a gastrovascular cavity with one opening
c. undergo metamorphosis
d. have a central nervous system

What are the three major groups of mammals, and what are their primary characteristics?

Members of phylum Annelida have a closed circulatory system and a complete digestive system. True or false?

Develop simple experiments to test whether $Physarum$ prefers (1) brightly lit or dark environments; (2) dry or moist conditions; (3) oats or sugar as a food source.