Explain whether or not budding produces genetic variation in yeasts.

The hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form bushy structures after making contact with the plasma membrane of a root cell. What is the function of these structures?

a. They anchor the fungus inside the root, so the association is more permanent.
b. They increase the surface area available for the transfer of nutrients.
c. They produce toxins that protect the plant cells against herbivores.
d. They break down cellulose and lignin in the plant cell wall.

Explain the role of spores in fungal reproduction.

Explain how mold on a single piece of fruit can easily spread to nearby fruit.

Explain why it can be beneficial to inoculate seeds of crop plants with mycorrhizal fungi.

Explain how Glomeromycota can be beneficial to plants.

Propose an experiment to test whether $Pilobolus$ shoots its sporangia preferentially toward light. Hypothesize why such a preference might be advantageous.

Explain the process of extracellular digestion that occurs during the growth of $Pilobolus$ mycelia through dung.

Would you describe the association between $Pilobolus$ and cows as a symbiotic relationship? Explain your answer.

Both asexual sporangia and zygosporangia can be found in cow dung. Make a simplified drawing that illustrates the events of plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis that occur during sexual reproduction in $Pilobolus$. Be sure to indicate and label the zygosporangium.

$Pilobolus$ is a zygomycete, and the sporangia just described produce asexual spores. In contrast, which of the following best describes what happens during the sexual phase of its life cycle?

a. It produces eight ascospores in each ascus.
b. It produces basidiospores that grow into mushrooms.
c. It produces motile sperm and eggs.
d. Hyphae from two compatible mating types fuse and form a zygosporangium.

Many mushrooms are extremely colorful. One hypothesis is that the colors serve as a warning to prevent animals from eating mushrooms, much like the bright yellow and black stripes on wasps help to deter potential predators. Design an experiment to test this hypothesis.

Identify the four types of sexual reproductive structures observed in fungi.

Explain the role of the polar tube in microsporidial infections.