The hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form bushy structures after making contact with the plasma membrane of a root cell. What is the function of these structures?

a. They anchor the fungus inside the root, so the association is more permanent.
b. They increase the surface area available for the transfer of nutrients.
c. They produce toxins that protect the plant cells against herbivores.
d. They break down cellulose and lignin in the plant cell wall.

You have been hired as a field assistant for a researcher interested in the evolution of flower characteristics in orchids. Design an experiment to determine whether color, size, shape, scent, or amount of nectar is the most important factor in attracting pollinators to a particular species. Assume that you can change any flower's color with a dye and that you can remove petals or nectar stores, add particular scents, add nectar by injection, or switch parts among species by cutting and gluing.

Angiosperms such as grasses, oaks, and maples are wind pollinated. The ancestors of these subgroups were probably pollinated by insects, however. As an adaptive advantage, why might a species "revert" to wind pollination? Why is it logical to observe that wind-pollinated species usually grow in dense stands containing many individuals of the same species? Why is it logical to observe that in wind-pollinated deciduous trees, flowers form very early in spring - before leaves form?

What trait(s) define(s) the vertebrates?

A) Jaws and a spinal cord.

B) Endoskeleton constructed of bone.

C) Notochord and a post-anal-tail.

D) Vertebrae and cranium.

What does it mean to say that a hypha is dikaryotic?

a. Two nuclei fuse during sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
b. Two independent nuclei, derived from different individuals, are present in each cell.
c. The nucleus is diploid or polyploid-not haploid.
d. It is extremely highly branched, which increases its surface area and thus absorptive capacity.

Suppose that a gene originally identified in nematodes (roundworms) is found to be homologous with a gene that can cause developmental abnormalities in humans. Would it be possible to use fruit flies as a model organism to study this gene? Explain.

Which of these characteristics does not apply to cnidarians?

a. are diploblastic
b. possess a gastrovascular cavity with one opening
c. undergo metamorphosis
d. have a central nervous system

What determines the primary structure of a DNA molecule?

a. stem-and-loop configuration
b. complementary base pairing
c. deoxyribonucleotide sequence
d. hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding

Evaluate whether morels (ascomycetes) or bread molds (zygomycetes) are more closely related to mushrooms (basidiomycetes).

Compare and contrast what happens inside a zygosporangium, a basidium, and an ascus.

Explain how fungi help connect two major parts of the cycle: carbon fixation and carbon release.

Evaluate the integral 1 to squareroot 3 arctan(1/x)dx

Explain how mold on a single piece of fruit can easily spread to nearby fruit.

Explain why it can be beneficial to inoculate seeds of crop plants with mycorrhizal fungi.