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Terms in this set (58)
- may not obey if they do not accept that the person giving the order has legitimate authority. (1)
- for example, when seeing the nurse outside of the hospital setting and uniform, she may not be deemed as an authority figure. (1)
- another reason for not obeying may be questioning the motives of the person giving the order. (1)
- similarly, outside of the hospital setting it can be easy to question the nurses motives. (1)
- for example, when seeing the nurse outside of the hospital setting and uniform, she may not be deemed as an authority figure. (1)
- another reason for not obeying may be questioning the motives of the person giving the order. (1)
- similarly, outside of the hospital setting it can be easy to question the nurses motives. (1)
- Adorno et al. believed that the foundations for an authoritarian personality were laid in early childhood as a result of harsh and strict parenting, which made the child feel that the love of their parents was conditional and depended upon how they behaved. (1)
- it is argued that this then creates resentment within the child as they grow up and, since they cannot express it at the time, the feelings are displaced onto others that are seen as weak or inferior. (1)
- consequently, a person will develop respect for those of a high status and will be more likely to obey such individuals. (1)
- it is argued that this then creates resentment within the child as they grow up and, since they cannot express it at the time, the feelings are displaced onto others that are seen as weak or inferior. (1)
- consequently, a person will develop respect for those of a high status and will be more likely to obey such individuals. (1)
- An explanation offered by Milgram, who suggested that we are more likely to obey a person who has a higher position or status in a social hierarchy. (1)
- In one of Milgram's variations, when the experiment took place in a run-down block, obedience levels dropped from 65% to 47.5%. (1)
- This change in location reduced the legitimacy of the authority, as ppts. were less likely to trust the experiment. (1)
- In one of Milgram's variations, when the experiment took place in a run-down block, obedience levels dropped from 65% to 47.5%. (1)
- This change in location reduced the legitimacy of the authority, as ppts. were less likely to trust the experiment. (1)
- an explanation of obedience offered by Milgram, suggesting that a person carries out the order of an authority, acting as their 'agent', feeling no personal responsibility for their actions. (1)
- The shift from autonomy to 'agency' is referred to as the 'agentic shift'. (1)
- in Milgram's original experiment, 65% of ppts. administered the full 450v and were arguably in an agentic state as they acted on behalf of the authority figure. (1)
- The shift from autonomy to 'agency' is referred to as the 'agentic shift'. (1)
- in Milgram's original experiment, 65% of ppts. administered the full 450v and were arguably in an agentic state as they acted on behalf of the authority figure. (1)
- One issue with the authoritarian explanations for obedience is that levels of education might be more important than levels of authoritarianism. (1)
- Research by Middendorp an Meleon found that less educated people are more likely than well educated people to display authoritarian personality characteristics. (1)
- If these claims are correct then it is possible to conclude that it is not authoritarian personality characteristics alone that lead to obedience but levels of education too. (1)
- Therefore the authoritarian personality explanation fails to take into account a range of factors that might affect obedient in particular education. (1)
- Research by Middendorp an Meleon found that less educated people are more likely than well educated people to display authoritarian personality characteristics. (1)
- If these claims are correct then it is possible to conclude that it is not authoritarian personality characteristics alone that lead to obedience but levels of education too. (1)
- Therefore the authoritarian personality explanation fails to take into account a range of factors that might affect obedient in particular education. (1)
- Research has been carried out that supports the agentic state as an explanation for obedience. Blass & Schmitt (2001) showed a film of Milgram's study to students and asked them to identify who they thought was responsible for the harm of the learner. (1)
- Findings of the study showed the students blamed the experimenter rather than the participant, indicating that this was due to legitimate authority. This can be explained as the researcher can be seen as the highest in status or hierarchy, and also due to expert authority as he is a scientist. (1)
- Supports the agentic state as an explanation for obedience as it shows that we are more likely to feel obligated to carry out orders or conform with an authority figure, even if these views or actions go against our own opinion. (1)
- Findings of the study showed the students blamed the experimenter rather than the participant, indicating that this was due to legitimate authority. This can be explained as the researcher can be seen as the highest in status or hierarchy, and also due to expert authority as he is a scientist. (1)
- Supports the agentic state as an explanation for obedience as it shows that we are more likely to feel obligated to carry out orders or conform with an authority figure, even if these views or actions go against our own opinion. (1)
- one explanation for obedience is an agentic state. (1)
- this claims that a person obeys when they are in a state characterised by the person viewing themselves as not responsible for their actions as they have passed responsibility onto the person they perceived to have legitimate authority. (1) - when they are in this state, they are an agent. The opposite of this state is known as an autonomous state where the person takes personal responsibility for their actions. When a person changes state from autonomous to agentic it is known as an agentic shift, once the shift has taken place the person will obey blindly. (1)
- another explanation for obedience is the authoritarian personality. Adorno believed that people obey because of their personalities. These are people who have extreme respectful authority and treat those beneath them with contempt. (1)
- Adorno claimed that this personality was caused by strict parenting which enforced high standards of discipline. (1)
- Since the child cannot show the resentment they feel towards the parents due to fear they displace this onto those below them. meaning they will always obey authority due to fear and expect those below them in social status to show the same respect to them. (1)
- this claims that a person obeys when they are in a state characterised by the person viewing themselves as not responsible for their actions as they have passed responsibility onto the person they perceived to have legitimate authority. (1) - when they are in this state, they are an agent. The opposite of this state is known as an autonomous state where the person takes personal responsibility for their actions. When a person changes state from autonomous to agentic it is known as an agentic shift, once the shift has taken place the person will obey blindly. (1)
- another explanation for obedience is the authoritarian personality. Adorno believed that people obey because of their personalities. These are people who have extreme respectful authority and treat those beneath them with contempt. (1)
- Adorno claimed that this personality was caused by strict parenting which enforced high standards of discipline. (1)
- Since the child cannot show the resentment they feel towards the parents due to fear they displace this onto those below them. meaning they will always obey authority due to fear and expect those below them in social status to show the same respect to them. (1)
A senior army instructor is advising new instructors how to ensure discipline. He says 'always wear your instructor jacket, stand up close when giving instructions. Make them all understand who has responsibility for the exercise. Serious problems should always be dealt with in the instructors office. Referring to research into obedience, explain three reasons why the instructors advice should be helpful. (6)
- Firstly, the presence of a uniform, in this case the instructors jacket, (1)
- conveys legitimate authority, as in Milgram's experiment where the experimenter had a lab coat. (1)
- Secondly, standing up close means that people are more likely to follow instructions, (1)
- as in Milgram's experiment where the authority figure was more effective when in the same room. (1)
- finally, the use of the instructors office again conveys the force of legitimate authority, (1) - as in Milgram's study where you was more likely to result in obedience then a downtown setting. (1)
- conveys legitimate authority, as in Milgram's experiment where the experimenter had a lab coat. (1)
- Secondly, standing up close means that people are more likely to follow instructions, (1)
- as in Milgram's experiment where the authority figure was more effective when in the same room. (1)
- finally, the use of the instructors office again conveys the force of legitimate authority, (1) - as in Milgram's study where you was more likely to result in obedience then a downtown setting. (1)
Outline and evaluate one or more explanations of obedience. (16)- one explanation for obedience is an agentic state. (1)
- this claims that a person obeys when they are in a state characterised by the person viewing themselves as not responsible for their actions as they have passed responsibility onto the person they perceived to have legitimate authority. (1) - when they are in this state, they are an agent. The opposite of this state is known as an autonomous state where the person takes personal responsibility for their actions. When a person changes state from autonomous to agentic it is known as an agentic shift, once the shift has taken place the person will obey blindly. (1)
RESEARCH SUPPORT A.S
- Research has been carried out that supports the agentic state as an explanation for obedience. Blass & Schmitt (2001) showed a film of Milgram's study to students and asked them to identify who they thought was responsible for the harm of the learner. (1)
- Findings of the study showed the students blamed the experimenter rather than the participant, indicating that this was due to legitimate authority. This can be explained as the researcher can be seen as the highest in status or hierarchy, and also due to expert authority as he is a scientist. (1)
- Supports the agentic state as an explanation for obedience as it shows that we are more likely to feel obligated to carry out orders or conform with an authority figure, even if these views or actions go against our own opinion. (1)
LIMITED EXPLANATION A.S
- The agentic state is only a limited explanation as to why individuals may obey. The agentic state doesn't explain many contradictory research findings, such as Hofling's nurse study. (1)
- Here, the agentic state explanation would predict that, as the nurses handed over responsibility to the doctor, they should have shown levels of anxiety similar to Milgram's participants. This would be caused due to their awareness of their role in causing some sort of harm. However, that was not the case in the nurse study. Therefore, the agentic state explanation can only account for only some specific instances of obedience. (1)
- Another explanation is offered by Milgram, who suggested that we are more likely to obey a person who has a higher position or status in a social hierarchy. (1)
- In one of Milgram's variations, when the experiment took place in a run-down block, obedience levels dropped to 48%. (1)
- This change in location reduced the legitimacy of the authority, as ppts. were less likely to trust the experiment. (1)
- A consequence of legitimate authorities is that they are granted the power to punish individuals, which in many cases exceeds the limits.
REAL LIFE APPLICATION L.A
- Legitimacy of authority explanation can be used to explain how obedience can lead to real-life war crimes. The My Lai massacre is a good example, as in 1968 504 unarmed civilians were killed by American soldiers. Women were raped, and villages were burnt to the ground.(1)
-Kelman and Hamilton (1989) argue that the massacre can be understood in term of the power hierarchy of the US army. Only one solider faced charges and when he was found guilty, his defence was that he was doing his duty by following orders. Real-life war crimes are effective examples of individuals relinquishing responsibility for their behaviour, leading to obedience. Therefore, providing further support for the idea that legitimacy of authority can be used to explain why people obey.(1)
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES L.A
- One strength of the legitimacy of authority explanation is that it is useful account of cultural differences in obedience. Kilham & Mann (1974) replicated Milgram's procedure in Australia and found that only 16% of their participants went all the way to the top of the voltage scale, with Mantell (1971) finding 85% of German participants to go all the way up. (1)
- These findings suggest that some cultures are more likely to accept authority as legitimate and feel more obligated to obey. Therefore, this reflects the variation present between cultures and society on the way they raise their children and societies to perceive authority figures. These supporting cross-cultural research studies increase the validity of the legitimacy of authority explanation for obedience. (1)Outline and evaluate the authoritarian personality as a dispositional explanation. (16)- The authoritarian personality refers to a specific personality held by people which makes them more prone to obedience.(1)
- It can be measured through a system, devised by Adorno et al (1950), called the F Scale, which presents the reader with statements to which they either agree or disagree, which in turn measures how authoritarian they are. (1)
- The personality is thought to be caused by a strict upbringing, as hostility cannot be expressed towards the individual's parents, and so is expressed towards other during adulthood. (1)
- People with an authoritarian personality tend to be rigid thinkers, who are obedient to authority in most cases. They have a strict adherence to social values, and show hostility to inferiors, but servility to superiors. (1)
-Altemeyer further specified the features of what he called 'right wing authoritarianism' and grouped to these features into three categories: conventionalism, authoritarian aggression, and authoritarian submission.(1)
- people with such a personality are more obedient because they see authority figures more legitimately than people without, and feel like they must obey to maintain their position and uphold societal values. (1)
P - A strength of the authoritarian personality as an explanation for obedience is there is research that supports it.
E - Elms and Milgram (1966) wanted to see if the obedient participants in Milgram's research were more likely to
display authoritarian personality traits, in comparison to disobedient participants. They sampled 20 participants from
each group, and they all completed several personality questionnaires, including Adorno's F scale.
E - The researchers found that the obedient participants scored higher on the F scale, in comparison to disobedient
participants
L - COUNTER ARGUMENT - However, this study's findings are only a correlation, therefore making it impossible to
draw the conclusion that authoritarian personality causes obedience. This leaves room to argue that there could be
other factors involved. *
P - Another weakness of the authoritarian personality explanation is that the F-scale measures the individual's
tendency of supporting an extremist right-wing ideology.
E - Christie and Jahoda (1954) argue this is a politically biased interpretation of authoritarian personality as it fails to
account for possible left-wing authoritarianism. They also argue that right and left-wing ideologies have quite a lot in
common, such as the emphasis on the importance of complete obedience to political authority.
E - Therefore, this dispositional explanation cannot account for obedience to authority across the whole political
spectrum.
L - This is a limitation of Adorno's theory, and more research needs to be carried out to investigate obedience in
people who have a different political view.In the context of resistance to social influence, explain what is meant by the term social support. (2)- people may resist pressures to conform or obey if they have support from someone who disagrees with the majority or refuses to obey. (1)
- this frees the individual from the pressure to conform or obey, allowing them to act independently. (1)Briefly describe social support as an explanation for resistance to social influence. (3)- one reason that people can resist the pressure to conform is if they have an ally, someone supporting their view. (1)
- Having social support can build confidence and allow individuals to remain independent. (1)
- Individuals who have support for their point of view no longer fear being ridiculed, allowing them to avoid normative social influence. (1)Outline locus of control as an explanation for resistance to social influence. (3)- In some cases, people can resist the pressure to conform or obey because of their personality. Rotter proposed the idea of lotus of control, which is the extent to which people believe they have control over their own lives. (1)
- People with an internal locus of control believe that what happens in their life is largely the result of their own behaviour and they have control over their life. (1)
- Individuals with an internal locus of control are therefore more independent and find it easier to resist pressure to conform or obey. (1)Evaluate the locus of control as an explanation of resistance to social influence. (4)- there is research support for the idea that individuals with an internal locus of control are less likely to conform. (1)
- Spector (1983) used Rotter's locus of control scale to determine whether locus of control is associated with conformity. (1)
- from 157 students, Spector found that individuals with a high internal locus of control were less likely to conform than those with a high external LOC, but only in situations of normative social influence. (1)
- this suggests that normative social influence, the desire to fit in, is more powerful than informational social influence, the desire to be right, when considering locus of control. (1)Evaluate social support as an explanation of resistance to social influence. (4)- there is research support for social support in reducing pressure to conform. (1)
- In one of Asch's variations, one of the confederates was instructed to give the correct answer throughout. (1)
- In this variation, the conformity dropped to about 5%. This demonstrates that if the real participant has support for their belief, they are more likely to resist pressure to confrom. (1)
- this suggests that social support lowers the pressure of the group, making it easier to demonstrate independent behaviour. (1)George, Petra and Dan have just started sixth form. Dan is confident and thinks his fate lies firmly in his hands. By the end of his first week, Dan has put himself in as a candidate for class representative. Patra has also put herself forward, she believes that luck will determine whether or not she is elected and there is nothing she can do about it. George did not put his name forward as his dad has told him not to.
a. i. What type of locus of control does Petra's behaviour show? (1)
ii. What type of locus of control does Dan's behaviour show? (1)
iii. Geroge did not put his name forward. Use your knowledge of social influence research to explain this. (2)
b. Which of the three students is most likely to resist the pressure to conform. (4)i. - Petra = external locus of control. (1)
ii. - Dan = internal locus of control. (1)
iii. - George did not put his name forward as he was obeying his father
-(1)someone who he is likely to see as a legitimate authority figure. (1)
b. - the student who is most likely to resist the pressure to conform is Dan. (1)
- he has an internal locus of control and research has suggested that those people who believe that they are in control of their environment are less likely to conform. (1)
- these personality types are much more likely to behave independently. Dan's attributional style allows him to resist the pressure to confrom. (1)
- another reason could be gender. Males have been shown to be more independent than females. (1)Two psychology students were discussing the topic of social influence. 'I find it fascinating how some people are able to resist social influence', said Jack. 'It must be the result of having a confident personality. 'I disagree', replied Sarah. 'I think resisting social influence depends much more on the presence of others. Discuss two explanations of resistance to social influence. As part of your discussion, refer to the views expressed by Jack and Sarah in the conversation above. (16)- one explanation for resistance to social influence is locus of control. In some cases, people can resist the pressure to conform or obey because of their personality. Rotter proposed the idea of lotus of control, which is the extent to which people believe they have control over their own lives. (1)
- people with an internal locus of control believe that what happens in their life is largely the result of their own behaviour and they have control over their life. They are more independent and find it easier to resist pressure to conform or obey. (1)
- Jack suggests that dispositional factors in resisting social influence are most important. Having a 'confident personality' could indeed be representative of an internal locus of control, and therefore being better able to resist social influence. (1)
- Another explanation for resistance to social influence is social support. One reason that people can resist the pressure to conform is if they have an ally, someone supporting their view. Having social support can build confidence and allow individuals to remain independent. (1)
- Individuals who have support for their point of view no longer fear being ridiculed, allowing them to avoid normative social influence. (1)
- Sarah suggests that situational variables are most important in resistance to social influence. In the presence of others, specifically, those who support your view, you are far more likely to resist social influence. (1)Explain what is meant by the term minority influence. (2)- the term minority influence refers to a form of social influence that is attributed to exposure to a consistent minority position in a group. (1)
- Minority influence is generally felt only after a period of time to produce private acceptance of the views expressed by the minority. (1)Describe what research has shown regarding consistency and minority influence. (3)- one experiments into minority influence was conducted by Moscovici. He wanted to see if a consistent minority could influence a majority to give an incorrect answer, in a colour perception task. (1)
- Moscovici found that in the consistent condition, the real participants agreed on 8.2% of the trials, whereas in the inconsistent condition, the real participants only agreed on 1.25% of the trials. (1)
- this shows that a consistent minority is 6.95% more effective than an inconsistent minority and that consistency is an important factor in minority influence. (1)Name and explain three behaviours that enable a minority to influence a majority. (6)- one behaviour that enables minority influence is consistency. (1)
- This consists of maintaining unchanging opinions/behaviour, which shows confidence in it's beliefs and appears unbiased. (1)
- consistency results in commitment, which is the next behaviour enabling minority influence. (1)
- This creates enough doubt in the mind of the majority about the established norms in order for them to re-examine their own beliefs/behaviour. (1)
- The final behaviour enabling minority influence is flexibility. (1)
- If they are seen to be flexible by demonstrating an ability to be moderate, co-operative and reasonable, then they will be persuasive. (1)Jenny is a psychology teacher who works with six others in the department. She believes that homework should not be marked as students do not read any of the feedback. Her colleagues disagree but are willing to have a meeting to discuss. Using your knowledge of minority influence, explain how Jenny might be able to convince the others to accept her views. (6)- In order for Jenny (the minority), to persuade the rest of her psychology department (the majority) she must show consistency, commitment and flexibility in her views about marking. (1)
- Firstly, Jenny could show consistency by continually repeating the same message about the benefits of verbal feedback (1)
- e.g. that it prevents the students from becoming distracted over their grades, in each of the department meetings. (1)
- Secondly, Jenny could show commitment to this view by explaining how she is making a personal sacrifice, by investing time in researching the best teaching strategies for marking and working hard to ensure that students have the best quality feedback on their work. (1)
-Finally, Jenny could show flexibility by listening to the other members of her department and agree to a compromise. They may agree to trial a marking strategy that involves verbal feedback with a reduced emphasis on grading. This will make Jenny appear less rigid and dogmatic. (1)Outline and evaluate research into minority influence. (16)- the term minority influence refers to a form of social influence that is attributed to exposure to a consistent minority position in a group. Minority influence is generally felt only after a period of time to produce private acceptance of the views expressed by the minority. (1)
- In order for a minority to successfully influence a majority, 3 major behaviours must be displayed, consistency, commitment and flexibility. (1)
- Moscovici et al. investigated minority influence through a colour perception task. In a group of 6 ppts., 36 green-blue slides were shown and ppts were asked to state the colour seen out loud. (1)
- The study had 3 conditions. In condition 1, confederates consistently answered green. In condition 2, confederates were inconsistent about the colour of the slides. Finally, condition 3 was a control group, with no confederates. (1)
- Moscovici found that in the consistent condition, the real participants agreed on 8.2% of the trials, whereas in the inconsistent condition, the real participants only agreed on 1.25% of the trials. This shows that a consistent minority is 6.95% more effective than an inconsistent minority and that consistency is an important factor in minority influence. (1)Identify the main type of encoding for each of the following components of the multi-store memory model. (2)
LTM & STMLTM = semantic
STM = acousticThe multi-store model proposes that there are separate short-term and long-term stores. Explain two differences between short-term and long-term memory in this mode. (4)- the duration and capacity of the STM is much lower than the LTM. (1)
- The STM store has a duration of up to 30 seconds, has a capacity of 7+/-2 chunks, whilst the LTM has unlimited capacity and duration. (1)
- Another difference is the type of encoding. (1)
- the STM mainly encodes information acoustically, whilst the LTM mainly encodes information semantically. (1)A researcher investigating the multi-store memory model tested short-term memory by reading lists out and asking ppts to repeat, each time, making the list longer. Using your knowledge of the multi-store memory model, explain the purpose of this research and the likely outcome. (4)- the purpose of investigations like this is to test short term memory. (1)
- This task requires verbal rehearsal, since short term memory is coded verbally/acoustically. (1)
- typically, we would expect most people to repeat correctly a sequence of between 5-9 items. (1)
- this is because, according to the multi-store model, short term memory has a capacity of 7+/-2. (1)Peters brain was damaged in a motorcycle accident. Psychologists tested how many numbers he could hold in his short-term memory by reading lists of numbers and asking him to recall in order. He could recall max. two items. His long-term memory was fine.
I. How was Peters STM different after the accident in comparison to most adults STM? (2)
II. Does this case study support the multi-store memory model. Explain why(not). (3)
III. Identify one ethical issue with this case study. Suggest how it can be dealt with (4)i. Typically, an STM can hold 7+/- 2 items, so therefore Peters is much shorter than the average expected capacity. (1)
ii. The multi-store memory model suggests that there are separate ST & LT stores. (1) In this scenario, Peters STM was impaired but his LTM was not. (1) This supports the idea of separate stores as one was damaged but the other was not affected. (1)
iii. Brain damage - informed consent may be doubtful. . Deal with this via remaining confidentiality. Keeping details private without revealing any information about the persons identity when publishing results and finidings.Describe and evaluate the multi-store memory model. Refer to evidence in your answer. (16)- the multi-store model of memory consists of three different stores: sensory store, short-term memory and long-term memory. This model was created by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) and describes the process of memory in terms of information being passed through a system.(1)
- Information from the environment is detected by sense organs and enters the sensory store. If this information is acknowledged or paid attention to, it enters the short-term memory. (1)
- this information should stay in the short-term memory, if rehearsed for maintenance, for zero to eighteen seconds. If the rehearsal is elaborative, the information transfers to the long-term memory in which the capacity and duration are unlimited. (1)
However, if rehearsal does not occur in any moment of the stores, the information is either forgotten or lost from the short-term memory through decay or displacement. (1)Briefly outline the components of the working memory model. (6)- The working memory model, devised by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, proposes that short-term memory (STM) is a collection of multiple stores which actively process different types of STM. According to the 1974 model, it consists of 3 components; the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. (1)
- The central executive is an attentional control system which processes all types of STM and coordinates the other slave systems. (1)
- The second part of the model is the phonological loop which processes auditory information. This slave system is often referred to as 'the inner ear'. (1)
- The final system, known as the visuo-spatial sketchpad, processes visual and spatial information. This slave system is often referred to as 'the inner eye'. (1)
- All three of these components are temporary storage systems of STM with a limited capacity. In 2000, Baddeley added a fourth component which he named the episodic buffer. (1)
- He proposed that this store is responsible for integrating information from the other slave systems and works as a link between working memory and long-term memory. (1)Bryan has been driving for 5 years, when driving, he can hold conversations or listen to music easily. Bob has had 4 driving lessons, but he requires loads of concentration so misses out when the instructor talks. With reference to the working memory model explain the different experiences. (4)- driving and holding a conversation requires the central executive to divide attention between the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. (1)
- As Bryan is an experienced driver and has been driving for '5 years', driving for him is almost automatic and therefore his visuo-spatial will put less demand on the central executive which frees up resources for his phonological loop to engage with conversations or listen to music. (1)
- Bob's visuo-spatial sketchpad will place more demand on the central executive as he is an inexperienced driver. (1)
- This is why Bob struggles to hear his instructor talking because he has less attentional resources available for his phonological loop which would allow him to process acoustic information. (1)Brain scans show that one area of the brain is more active when doing a verbal task and a different area is more active when doing a visual task.
i. Explain how this could relate to the working memory model. Refer to different components of the model. (4)
ii. Give an example of an appropriate verbal and visual task that can be used during the scan. (2)i. - The visuo-spatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information and (1) - will be more active when the person is doing a visual task. (1) - The phonological loop comprising the the phonological store (inner ear) and articulatory control system (inner voice) (1) - will be active during a verbal task. (1)
ii. verbal : learning & repeating words. (1) visual : forming an image off of something. (1)Describe and evaluate the working memory model. (16)- Baddeley and Hitch (1979) introduced their working memory model to challenge the multi store model of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin. The working memory model is a cognitive model of short term memory comprised of three main components; the central executive, the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. (1)
- information is received via the senses and the sensory memory store either sends this on to working memory for processing or the information decays.(1)
- the central executive acts as a main controller, allocating information to the various components depending on what class of information it is. (1)
- the visuo-spatial sketchpad handles information relating to visual or spatial form. this store is particularly important in navigation. (1)
- the phonological loop processes written or spoken information. this is made up of two sub categories; the phonological store and the articulatory process. (1)
- once information is processed, the central executive relays the information to long term memory store where it can be retrieved when necessary. they suggested the components of working memory all have limited capacity. (1)Traditionally officers would use the standard interview. Explain how the cognitive interview differs from this. (3)- The main techniques used in cognitive interviews include, context reinstatement, reporting everything, recall in reverse order and recall from changed perspective. (1)
- standard interviews might just ask witnesses to recall an event, but a cognitive interview could ask them to recall the context in which the event occurred. (1)
- This could include environmental details (such as the weather) and emotional factors (such as how they felt at the time). (1)Describe the cognitive interview. (6)- The cognitive interview is an interview technique used in order to aid memory and improve accuracy of eye witness statements. It consists of four aspects: 'recall everything', 'reverse the order', 'change perspective' and 'reinstate the context'. (1)
- The first component, 'recall everything', involves the interviewer asking the witness to record every detail of the incident in question, regardless of how minor it may seem, in order to create a more accurate picture of the incident. (1)
- Secondly, 'reverse the order' entails the witness recalling the incident in reverse order (starting with the end of the incident) which reduces the chance of false reporting. (1)
- The technique 'change perspective' involves the witness reporting the incident from somebody else's viewpoint which aims to trigger more memories of the incident from the witness and give a more complete explanation of what happened to the interviewer. (1)
- Lastly, the witness is asked to 'reinstate the context' and mentally return back to the incident which would allow a more complete recall of what happened, while simultaneously providing environmental and personal cues to trigger memory, thus promoting higher recall accuracy. (1)
- This technique has proved to be hugely efficient in improving the accuracy of eye witness statements, and is said to be significantly more effective than the standard police interview. (1)Briefly outline and evaluate the cognitive interview.
(6)- A cognitive interview is a technique employed by police officers to conduct questioning of a witness following an event, in order to improve the memory recall of the event. (1)
There are 4 main techniques used during a cognitive interview which include; asking a witness to recall as many details as they can about the event regardless of how small they may be, recreate the scene or environment of the event such as the weather, or how the witness was feeling at the time, (1)
- recall the event from a different person's perspective and recall the event in a different order. (1)
- The cognitive interview has been criticised as a technique, because it can be more time consuming for police officers, especially as the police will require specific training and expertise to employ the method correctly. The actual cognitive interview itself also takes longer than the standard method used for interviewing. (1)
- Furthermore, this has been argued to decrease the accuracy in recall, by encouraging witnesses to recall the event from another persons persepective, they may produce inaccurate information. (1)
- However, the cognitive interview has been shown throughout other studies to produce more accurate information than an interview conducted in the standard manner. For example; Kohnken et al carried out a meta-analysis combining 50 studies, and this showed that the cognitive interview consistently provided more correct information than the standard interview. (1)Describe and evaluate at least one way of improving eye witness recall. Use evidence to support your answer. (16)- Fisher and Geisleman developed the cognitive interview and the first principle of this was to encourage the eyewitness to recall more detailed information and to improve the accuracy of the information recalled. (1)
- There are 4 techniques used in the interviews and these are read to the witness at the start. (1)
- Context reinstatement: includes any personal cues at the time of the scene, can include environmental factors or feelings. Encoding specificity principle mentally recreates the scene through retrieval cues. (1)
- Recall everything: Recall of all information regardless of relevance. Retrieval cues which can lead to further information being remembered and recalled. (1)
- Recall from changed POV : includes recalling all details of the scene through a different perspective, could be victim or another witness. This causes information to be retrieved which may not have been noticed initially. (1)
- Recall in reverse order: changing the chronological order of recall, e.g. can be from end to begining. This may unlock memories through retrieval cues which help the witness reflect on the scene. (1)Briefly discuss one limitation of using animals to study attachment in humans. (4)- The differences in nature and the complexity of bonds differ widely between humans and animals. (1)
- As such, it may be difficult to apply these findings to the understanding of human attachments. (1)
- Findings cannot be generalised across all species as there are significant differences between these. (1)Outline how Lorenz and Harlow studied attachment using animals. (6)- Lorenz studied attachment through geese. (1)
- goose eggs were randomly divided : half were hatched in a natural environment, with the mother present and half were hatched in an incubator with Lorenz's presence. (1)
- the behaviour of the goslings were recorded. (1)
- Harlow studied attachment through monkeys. (1)
- In a controlled environment, infant monkeys were reared with 2 mother surrogates: plain wire mother dispensing food and cloth covered mother with no food. (1)
- time spent with each mother was recorded as well as long term effects such as sociability and relationships with offspring. (1)Outline and evaluate animal studies into attachment. (16)- Lorenz conducted a study into attachment and demonstrated how attachment occurred within animals. Lorenz divided 12 eggs, 1/2 hatched with the mother and 1/2 hatched in an incubator, where the first moving object seen was Lorenz. (1)
- The goslings hatched with Lorenz, were found to imprint themselves on Lorenz, following him around. (1)
- When Lorenz mixed these with the control group, they would separate and go onto who they were familiar with (mother/Lorenz). Lorenz discovered a critical period of a few hours after hatching, if imprinting did not occur within this time, the goslings did not attach themselves to a mother figure. (1)
- Harlow conducted research to examine which factors were most important in attachments. He placed infant rhesus monkeys in cages and they were exposed two mother figures: one was a wire mother dispensing food and the other a cloth covered mother with no food. (1)
- Measurements were made through an observation of the amount of time spent with each mother and their response to frightening situations, e.g. a noise making bear. (1)
- The findings were that all monkeys, despite who fed them spent most time with with the cloth covered mum and when frightened, all monkeys would run back to the cloth covered monkey for comfort. These finding's show that contact comfort was more important than food in terms of attachment. (1)Abi had a happy, secure childhood with parents who loved her very much. She now has two children and loves them very much. The two children make friends easily, are confident and trusting. Referring to Abi and her family, explain what psychologists have discovered about the internal working model. (6)- Bowlby believed that children develop an internal working model from their monotropic attachment. According to Bowlby, this is usually the mother or a mother substitute. (1)
- This internal working model is a mental representation which acts a template for future relationships. (1)
- Evidence to support the internal working model comes from Hazan and Shaver, who used a questionnaire called the Love Quiz. They found a positive correlation between early childhood experiences and later love experiences. (1)
- Securely attached children went on to develop secure and happy adult relationships. This supports Bowlby's idea of an internal working model as it clearly shows that early attachment experiences can affect later adult relationships, through the internal working model. (1)
- As Abi had a 'secure childhood with parents who loved her very much' this would have led to her developing a positive internal working model, allowing her to go onto form secure attachments with her children 'who she loves very much', as suggested by Hazan and Shaver. (1)
- Furthermore, her children who are also securely attached have gone onto make secure attachments with their friends, as they are 'confident and trusting' in their relationships. (1)Two mothers are chatting. "I always felt sorry for my husband when Millie was a baby. He used to say his bond with her was not as strong as his because I was breastfeeding". "I'm not sure, I think there's something about a mothers love that makes it more special anyway- its so important for future development". Replies the other. Discuss the learning theory of attachment and Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment. (16)- Learning theory explains how infants learn to become attached through the processes of classical or operant conditioning. It is sometimes called the 'cupboard love' theory because of the focus on food and in this case, breast milk from Millie's mother. (1)
- Classical conditioning is learning by association. Before conditioning, food (breast milk) is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of pleasure as a relief from hunger in Millie. The mother is a neutral stimulus (NS), who produces no conditioned response. During conditioning, the child associates the mother (NS) who feeds them with the food (UCS). Through repeated pairing, by regular breastfeeding, the mother becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) who is associated with the pleasure from feeding. (1)
- This results in the mother eliciting a conditioned response from the child and the formation of an attachment. The husband did not form this association with the infant, as he didn't feed Millie. (1)
- Bowlby monotropic theory proposes that infants have an innate readiness during the critical period to form an attachment to their caregiver to protect them from harm whilst they are young and vulnerable, in order to increase chances of survival. (1)
- He believed that infants form one very special attachment with their primary caregiver, most frequently the mother and this special, intense attachment is called monotropy. If the mother isn't available, the infant can bond with another ever-present adult, known as a mother-substitute. (1)
- Through the monotropic attachment, the infant would form an internal working model which is an internal template for future relationship expectations and will affect future development, as the second mother suggests.Sam and Dan are both twelve months old. They are observed separately in Ainsworth's strange situation. Sam is slightly upset when his mother leaves but Dan is very upset and cries loudly.
I. Identify the attachment types shown by either. (2)
II. Their behaviour was observed when the mothers returned. Give one example of behaviour each child would be likely to show. (2)i. Sam : secure (1) Dan: insecure resistant (1)
ii. Sam : excited on reunion & easily comforted. (1) Dan : May go to mother but reject comfort from (1)A researcher used the strange situation to investigate the attachment types of two infants. Megan was classified as insecure-avoidant and Rosie was classified as insecure resistant. Explain how Megans behaviour would differ from Rosies behaviour in the strange situation. (4)- Separation behaviour: Megan = insecure avoidant; seems unconcerned when mother leaves (1)
- Separation behaviour: Rosie; insecure resistant; showing intense distress. (1)
- Reunion behaviour: Megan would show little reaction when the mother comes back. (1)
- whereas Rosie may cling to her mother, but show ambivalent behaviour towards her. (1)Describe and evaluate Ainsworth's work on attachment. As part of your evaluation you should refer to at least one other researcher. (16)- Ainsworth devised an observation called the strange situation to measure types of attachment. The Strange Situation involves placing a child in a controlled environment, whereby they would be observed under a series of different situations, with each episode lasting three minutes. (1)
-The purpose of the Strange Situation is to measure four key behaviours, including: exploration behaviours - how the child explores the environment and whether they use the mother as a safe base; separation anxiety - how the child responds to/behaves when the mother leaves the room; stranger anxiety - how the child responds in the presence of a stranger; and reunion behaviours - how the child acts when reunited with their mother. (1)
- Depending on how the child responds in the strange situation, Ainsworth classified the children as securely attached, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant. (1)
- Secure: harmonious and cooperative interactions with the caregiver. (1)
- Insecure-avoidant: tend to avoid social interactions and intimacy with others. (1)
- Insecure-resistant: both seek and resist intimacy and social interaction. (1)Outline and evaluate cultural variations in attachment. (16)- Cultural variations in attachment refer to the differences in child-rearing practices and attachment types between different cultural groups, looking at whether attachment styles are universal or culturally influenced. (1)
- Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study into cultural variations in attachment conducted a meta-analysis of the strange situation. The research consisted of 32 cross-cultural studies of attachment behaviour. (1)
- The strange situation was carried out in 8 different countries which include the UK, US, Sweden, Japan, China, Holland, Israel, and Germany, studying 1990 children. (1)
- The researchers looked at the proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachments as well as differences within the same countries to get an idea of variation within cultures. (1)
- The lowest percentage of secure attachments was shown in China (50%) and the highest in Great Britain (70%). It was also found that Western countries that support independence such as Germany had high levels of insecure-avoidant. (1)
- Eastern countries that are culturally close, such as Japan, had high levels of the insecure resistant attachment style. Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures. (1)Anca is an orphan who has recently been adopted by a british couple. Prior to her adoption, she lived in an institution with loads of other children and poor conditions. Her new parents are concerned that her early experiences may affect her in the future. Use your knowledge of the effects of institutionalisation to advice Anca's new parents about what to expect. (5)- Institutionalisation can have a number of effects on physical, intellectual and emotional well-being. Therefore, I would advise Anca's parents that one of the effects of institutionalisation is an attachment style called 'disinhibited attachment'. Anca might develop a form of attachment where she does not discriminate between different people. (1)
- Anca's parents might expect to see Anca treat strangers in an overly friendly way because of her disinhibited attachment. (1)
Another effect is problems with concentration. I would advise Anca's parents to expect slower cognitive development which might mean that Anca struggles at school and does not keep up (academically) with her peers of a similar age. (1)
- Anca may struggle with emotional development which can lead to her experiencing more temper tantrums, (1)
- as well as struggling to interact with peers and form close relationships. (1)Discuss and evaluate the effects of institutionalisation. Refer to the studies of Romanian orphans in your answer. (16)- Institutionalisation can refer to places such as hospitals and orphanages, where children live for a continuous period of time without a parent. (1)
- Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation has seen that children deprived of their mother's care and love during the critical period, experience negative psychological effects during development. (1)
- Bowlby saw that some children developed affectionless psychopathy, experiencing no guilt or strong emotions for others as well as not being able to form normal relationships as a result of the absence of an internal working model. Furthermore, it was found that deprivation can lead to a low IQ. (1)
- Rutter et al. followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain They were investigating the extent to which good care could make up for the negative experiences of institutionalisation. Upon arrival in the UK, the orphans showed delayed intellectual development and were severely undernourished. (1)
- Assessments at ages 4,6,11 and 15 showed physical, cognitive, and emotional development. Institutionalisation caused quasi-autistic symptoms (impaired language and social skills) as well as a disinhibited attachment in children adopted after 6 months (the older the more severe). (1)
- disinhibited attachment is characterised by attention-seeking, clinginess, and socially indiscriminate towards all adults (familiar/unfamiliar). Rutter also saw effects on the child's intellectual development with an average IQ of 102 when adopted before 6 months. And an average IQ of 86 after 6 months, and an IQ of 77 after 2 years. (1)Discuss and evaluate research into the influence of childhood on adult relationships. (16)- According to Bowlby later relationships are likely to be a continuation of early attachment styles (secure and insecure) because the behaviour of the infant's primary attachment figure promotes an internal working model of relationships which leads the infant to expect the same in later relationships.(1)
- Hazan and Shaver looked into the effects of early attachment by using Ainsworth's attachment types. They conducted a love quiz in a local newspaper, where the participants picked an adjective that best described their relationships with their parents. (1)
- They found that 56% of respondents were securely attached, 23-25% were insecure avoidant., and 19-20% were insecure resistant. These are similar findings to Ainsworth's. (1)
- They then asked the same people to describe the most important love relationship they have ever had. They classified those as securely attached to have happy, friendly and trusting relationships, being able to accept and support their partner despite their faults. Their relationships also tended to last longer, and marriage was less likely to end in divorce. (1)
- Finally, they were asked questions about mental health, and relationships. The securely attached participants believed in lasting love, and though genuine love is enduring. They find theirs trustworthy and have confidence in themselves as likeable. (1)
- Overall, they found that securely attached participants found romantic relationships easier, were the best parents, had the best childhood friendships and better mental health. They said that insecure avoidant will struggle to get close in romantic relationships, and ill reject their children. Insecure resistant was shown to be clingy in romantic relationships, fussy over the children, and are more likely to have mental health issues. (1)Bina has been diagnosed with depression. Her doctor says that depression is common but Bina is miserable. She cannot be bothered to get washed in the morning and her manager is unhappy that she is taking a lot of time off work. When she does go to work, she is irritable, has temper tantrums and is rude to costumers. Using your knowledge of three definitions of abnormality, explain weather or not Binas behaviour may be considered abnormal. (4)- statistical infrequency: the doctor says depression is quite common therefore Bina's behaviour should not be considered abnormal. (1)
- failure to function adequately - Bina is neglecting personal hygiene she also takes lots of time off work therefore her behaviour could be considered abnormal (1)
- deviation from ideal mental health - Bina is miserable therefore her behaviour could be considered abnormal. (1)
- deviation from social norms - Bina has temper tantrums/is rude to customers which is not the norm for adults in a work environment therefore her behaviour could be considered to be abnormal. (1)Rob is a sixth form student who started hearing voices in his head. They are often threatening and make Rob feel frightened. The voices make it difficult for Rob to complete homework and he is worried about how this may affect his chances of going to university. Rob hasn't told anyone about his experiences but his parents and teachers have noticed that he appears distracted, anxious and untidy. Outline and evaluate failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health as definitions of abnormality, refer to Rob. (16)- According to the Failure to Function Adequately definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life (e.g. social and/or occupational) and live independently in society. (1)
- Furthermore, to be classified as abnormal, a person's behaviour should cause personal suffering and distress because of their failure to cope. However, they may also cause distress or discomfort to other people who observe their behaviour. Therefore, according to this definition, Rob could be considered abnormal because his symptoms are causing an inability to cope with everyday life as he is finding it difficult to 'complete his homework'. (1)
- furthermore, Rob's symptoms are also causing distress or discomforted, as 'his parents and teachers' have noticed his anxiety. (1)
- Jahoda (1958) took a different approach to defining abnormality, suggesting that abnormal behaviour should be defined by the absence of particular (ideal) characteristics. In other words, behaviours which move away (deviate) from ideal mental health. (1)
- Jahoda outlined a series of principles, including: having an accurate view of reality; being able to integrate and resist stress; and being able to master your environment (love, friendships, work, leisure time, etc.) Therefore, if an individual does not demonstrate one of these criteria, they would be classified as abnormal according to this definition. It could be argued that Rob does not have an accurate view of reality as he is hearing voices which are not present. (1)
- furthermore, he seems to be unable to resist stress as his parents and teachers have noted that he is anxious, and he is unable to master the environment, in particular his work, as his symptoms are preventing him from completing his homework. Consequently, Rob would be seen as abnormal, according to this definition. (1)Outline and evaluate deviation from social norms and statistical infrequency as definitions of abnormality. (16)- Under the definition of statistical infrequency, the definition of abnormality is when a person's trait, thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual. (1)
- With this definition it is necessary to be clear about how rare a trait or behaviour needs to be before we class it as abnormal. (1)
- For instance, we may not class someone who has an above average IQ as abnormal but we may class them as abnormal if their IQ was below average. (1)
- deviation from social norms is a definition of abnormality where a person's thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group. (1)
- Their behaviour may be incomprehensible to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable.
Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behaviour, or socially acceptable norms. (1)
- it is necessary to consider the degree to which a norm is violated, the importance of that norm and the value attached by the social group to different sorts of violation e.g. is the violation rude, eccentric, abnormal or criminal. (1)Outline and evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias. (16)- systematic desensitisation is a gradual exposure therapy, employing the principles of conditioning and counter conditioning to reduce anxiety related to the phobic stimulus. The therapy works by presenting the phobic stimulus (e.g. snake) in absence of the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. being bitten). (1)
- within the therapy, the patient and the therapist first create an anxiety hierarchy related to the phobic stimulus ranging from situations that induce the least anxiety to situations that induce the most anxiety. (1)
- for example, someone with a phobia of snakes might start the hierarchy by looking at pictures of snakes, and end the hierarchy by touching a snake. Through a series of sessions, the hierarchy is worked through, ensuring relaxation is reached at each level before moving on. (1)
- Another treatment for phobias is flooding. This includes exposing people patients to their phobic stimulus with no gradual build-up. This is a more extreme method to treating phobias as it involves exposing the person to what they're afraid of almost immediately. For example, a fear of snakes can be treated with direct exposure to a snake. (1)
- People tend to quickly learn that their phobic stimulus is harmless once exposed to it, curing them of their phobia through 'extinction' effects. In this case, the person sees that the snake is harmless and no longer associates it with fear. (1)
- Patients need to give full informed consent before they can participate in a flooding session, as it can be quite traumatic. (1)Kirsty is in her 20's and has a phobia of balloons since one burst near her face when she was a little girl. Loud noises such as banging and popping cause Kirsty extreme anxiety and she avoids situations such as birthday parties and weddings where there may be balloons. Suggest how the behavioural approach might be used to explain Kirsty's phobia of balloons. (4)- Kirsty's phobia has developed through classical conditioning, she has formed an association between the neutral stimulus (balloon) and the response of fear. (1)
- The conditioned response is triggered every time she sees a balloon (or hears similar noises). (1)
- Her phobia has generalised to situations where balloons might be present, such as parties and weddings, and to similar noises, 'banging' and 'popping'. (1)
- Her phobia is maintained through operant conditioning - the relief she feels when avoiding balloons becomes reinforcing. (1)Behaviourists believe that all behaviour, normal and abnormal is learned through processes such as classical/operant conditioning and social learning. Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining phobias. (16)- As part of the two-process model, as proposed by Mowrer, classical conditioning is used to explain the acquisition of the phobia, whereas operant conditioning is used to explaining how the phobic behaviour is maintained. (1)
- The classical conditioning of a phobia involves learning to associate something with which we initially had no fear (neutral stimulus) with something that already triggers a fear response (unconditioned stimulus). (1)
- For example, a child with no previous fear of dogs gets bitten by a dog and from this moment onwards associates the dog with fear and pain. Due to the process of generalisation the child is not just afraid of the dog who bit them, but shows a fear of all dogs. (1)
- Operant conditioning can help to explain how the phobia is maintained. The conditioned stimulus evokes fears, and avoidance of the feared object or situation lessens this feeling, which is rewarding. (1)
- This is known as negative reinforcement, where an individual avoids an unpleasant situation, resulting in desirable consequences. (1)
- When we avoid the phobic stimulus, we successfully escape the anxiety and fear, and therefore the negative reinforcement strengths the avoidance behavior, and the phobia is maintained. (1)Researchers have analysed the behaviour of over 4000 pairs of twins. The results showed that the degree to which OCD is inherited is between 45% & 65%.
i. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions. (2)
ii. With reference to the study described above, what do the results seem to show about the possible influences on the development of OCD? (4)i. obsessions are internal components as they are thoughts. (1) compulsions are external components because they are behaviours. (1)
ii. results indicate development of OCD is at least partly genetic. (1) These findings suggest that heritability is high (between 45% and 65%). (1) this means that there must also be other explanations and that inherited influence is not 100% (1) so other factors such as environment may also partly account for OCD.Discuss and evaluate biological explanations of obsessive compulsive disorder. Refer to evidence in your answer. (16)- Genetic explanations suggest that OCD is inherited and that individuals inherit specific genes causing OCD. The genetic explanation focuses on identifying specific genes which can leave people more likely to suffer from OCD. These are known as candidate genes. (1)
- The SERT gene is linked to the neurotransmitter serotonin which affects the transport of serotonin across synapses. This results in decreased levels of this neurotransmitter which is associated with OCD and depression. (1)
- The COMPT gene is associated with the production of dopamine, which is also implicated in OCD. Moreover, OCD is polygenic, and is therefore caused by several genes.
- The neural explanations of OCD focus on neurotransmitters and the brain structure. A neurotransmitter is responsible for relaying info from one neuron to another, abnormal levels of neurotransmitters are believed to cause OCD. (1)
- The neurotransmitter serotonin is believed to play a role in OCD as reductions in levels of serotonin in the brain lowers mood. As such high levels of sopamine may lead to OCD. (1)
- In other cases, OCD is associated with impaired decision making, this is when the lateral frontal lobes which are responsible for logical thinking and decision making are functioning abnormally. Furthermore, the parahippocampal gyrus, which is associated with processing unpleasant emotions also functions abnormally in OCD. (1)Discuss and evaluate biological treatments of obsessive compulsive disorder. (16)- biological treatments of OCD aim to decrease or increase levels of neurotransmitters in the brain to increase or decrease their activity. (1)
- antidepressants are the standard treatment for OCD, in particular a type of antidepressant known as SSRI. SSRI's prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the synapse. (1)
- This results in more serotonin in the brain. This increases the serotonin in the synapse, resulting in more serotonin stimulating the postsynaptic neuron, reducing symptoms of OCD. A typical dose of Fluoxetine (SSRI) is 20mg but can be adjusted if not effective for the patient. (1)
- Drugs are often taken alongside CBT to treat OCD. These drugs reduce the patient's emotional symptoms such as depression and anxiety, for better engagement in CBT. (1)
-If an SSRI is ineffective after 3-4 months, alternative antidepressants are used to treat OCD. Tricyclics such as Clomipramine are used as they have the same effect as SSRI's, but with much more severe side effects. (1)
- furthermore, SNRI's are used as an alternative to SSRI's if they are ineffective. SNRI's increase serotonin and noradrenaline. (1)
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