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Psychology Final

Terms in this set (122)

6) Name common symptoms of depression
-depressed mood most day almost every day
-disinterested in activities and hobbies
-changes in appetite
-changes in sleep patterns
-loss of energy
-irritability
-anxiety
-worthlessness/helplessness
-suicidal ideation
6) What are types of depression?
a. Major depression
b. Psychotic depression (Major Depression + Severe psychotic symtoms)
c. Bipolar disorder
d. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
e. Postpartum Depression
f**) Clinical depression: if needs treatment
Describe body language of depression
-Lower score of Body Awareness Rating
-Move, talk and walk more slowly
-Increased neck flexion
6) Describe the different theories of depression: Behavioral/learning theories
Emphasizes on the importance of the environment in shaping behavior.
A. Classical conditioning: depression is learned through associating certain stimuli with negative emotional states.
B. Operant conditioning: suggests that depression is caused by the removal of positive reinforcements from the environment. For example, during covid, many people fell into depressions because they had their social life taken from them.
6) Describe the different theories of depression: Psychoanalytic theory
-Can be linked to loss or rejection by a parent
-Like grief --> result of loss of an important relationship
-Actual or symbolic losses can trigger a re-experience
-To avoid loss to turn into depression--> mourning work (recalling memories with the lost one)
6) Describe the different theories of depression: Cognitive Models of Depression developed by Beck
Focuses on a person's beliefs rather than their behavior
-Depression results from systematic negative bias in thinking processes
-People with depression think differently

Triangle between.... a negative self-view, a negative view of the future, and a negative view of the world
6) Describe the different theories of depression: humanist approach
Maslow's Hierarchy Pyramid: everything builds up so that you reach self-actualization --> the most important= meaningful life
Anything that blocks our striving to fulfil self-actualization can be a cause for depression.
6) Describe the different theories of depression: biochemical approach
Depression is linked to abnormal brain chemistry (chemical imbalances in the brain)
-having too little dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin can result in depression
-Balance restored with antidepressants
6) How are neurotransmitters involved in depression? Additionally, talk about 2 neurotransmitters that are believed to influence depression and explain how.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals sent from neuron to neuron with the purpose of exiting or inhibiting the next neuron. This process often occurs in relation to mood adjustment.

Findings have claimed that depression develops as a result of a chemical imbalance in the brain, meaning that through medication that increases or decreases specific neurotransmitters, depression can be regulated.

Two neurotransmitters that influence depression: dopamine and serotonin.

-A. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is released as a reward to pleasurable situations. This neurotransmitter forms connections and tends to motivate you to repeat specific situations or actions. A reduced quantity of dopamine, therefore, contributes to depression due to a lack of motivation to complete tasks or engage in pleasurable activities. --> because there is no or little reward so you are not motivated to do it again.

-B. Serotonin is the "feel-good" neurotransmitter, which is basically in charge of stabilizing emotions and feelings of well-being. A lack of serotonin would cause depression because the subject wouldn't receive the 'feel-good' doses and therefore, would feel sad and unmotivated. Many anti-depressants use SSRIs as a way to prevent the little amounts of serotonin to be taken in by the cell again, keeping the neurotransmitter in the synapse and stimulating the neuron to "bring more happiness"
6) What is psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the study of abnormal behavior and cognition that result in psychological disorders.
6) The Role of Norepinephrine
-NeuroT and a hormone
-"flight or fight" response + adrenaline
-"hyper"
-enhances sensory input, enhances attention, enhances formation and retrieval of memories, and enhances brain reaction
6) The Role of Serotonin
-"feel good" chemical
-Stabilizes mood and increases feeling of well-being
-Many antidepressants based in this
6) What are SSRIs
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
-They stop the serotonin from being absorbed from the synapse back into the neuron cell.
Keeps the serotonin in the synapse which keeps stimulating the neuron and "bringing more happiness"
6) The Role of Dopamine
-Creates positive feelings associated with reward or reinforcement that motivate us to continue with this task
-Brain's primary fuel
-Low dopamine=depression
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: ALL OR NOTHING THINKING
It describes a thinking pattern where you think that the extremes are the only options. So, you either achieve perfection or you consider yourself a failure.
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: OVER-GENERALISING
A pattern of thought in which you generalize feelings or experiences of a specific event onto other circumstances. Thinking that all friends are disloyal and evil just because one disappointed you.
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: MENTAL FILTER
Only paying attention to certain types of evidence (the one the backs up your idea, not seeing your successes and only your fails)
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: DISQUALIFYING THE POSITIVE
Discounting the good things that have happened or that you have done
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: JUMPING TO CONCLUSIONS
1. Mind reading: imagining we know what others are thinking
2. Fortune telling: predicting the future
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: MAGNIFICATION AND MINIMISATION
Blowing things out of proportion or shrinking something to make it seem less important
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: EMOTINAL REASONING
Assuming that because you feel a certain way that is true (I was embarrased so I am stupid)
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: SHOULD/MUST
Using words like 'should', 'must', etc increases the feeling that you have failed and applying it to others results in frustration
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: LABELLING
Assigning labels to ourselves or other people
I am a loser
6) Describe common cognitive distortions in depression: PERSONALISATION
Blaming yourself or taking respnsibility for something that was not your fault. Also, blaming things you did on others.
6) Identify symptoms of stress and how to deal with it
...
6) Explain the functions of negative emotions
...
6) Describe different techniques of dealing with negative emotions (including the TEARS of HOPE).
...
6) Introduction to the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
It is a guide that classifies mental disorders systematically. It describes the "symptoms" or behaviors for each disorder and states how many of these the patient must have to be considered as a person with given disorder.

They are revised and updated regularily, rn in Ch.5
6) Explain the Autism Spectrum Disorder
- issues with social interactions
- repetitive patterns of behavior
- clumsiness
- RELATIONSHIP WITH INTELLIGENCE
------40% have an IQ lower than normal, but many high IQ individuals have high-functioning autism/Asperger's syndrome.
- Cause: unclear
- Tend to process more with left hemisphere, less connections between brain areas but more within them
6) Symptoms of AD(H)D
-Much Inattention
-Disorganization
-Hyperactivity-impulsivity
- ISSUES WITH EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING (aka. cognitive controls) --> attentional control, cognitive inhibition, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.
-Trouble with doing things simultaneously
-Genetic
-Creative
6) What is executive functioning and how is it impaired in ADHD?
-Executive functioning refers to the set of cognitive processes that make sure that you are in charge of your actions. For example, being able to choose a behavior that successfully facilitates your capability of reaching your goal and then, maintain the chosen behavior.

(ex. attention control, working memory. cognitive flexibility, cognitive inhibition, inhibitory control)

-This function is impaired in people with ADHD because their brains are easily distracted. Their current pattern of thought can be disturbed by one distractor that will overrule the current thought process. This means that they struggle with making decisions and following them through, which explains why planning is one of their difficulties.

-Performing higher-order executive functions requires the skill of planning and of simultaneous thought processes. This is an area of difficulty in people with ADHD.
6) Explain how Autism and AD(H)D and its connection to marijuana
ADHD---> marijuana worsens it. interrupts pruning.
Autism---> Helps with emotional balancing, seizures, etc.
6) Describe the 3 Clusters Personality Disorders
Cluster A: odd or eccentric disorders (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal)
Cluster B: dramatic, emotional, or erratic (antisocial, borderline, histronic, narcicistic)
Cluster C: anxious or fearful (avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive)
6) Borderline Personality Disorder
instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as impulsivity; key features include intolerance of being alone and fear of abandonment, unstable relationships, unpredictable behavior and moods, and intense and inappropriate anger
6) antisocial personality disorder
psychological disorder in which one demonstrates a lack of conscience
6) histrionic personality disorder
refers to having great levels of uncontrolled emotion and attention seeking
6) narcissistic personality disorder
characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a preoccupation with fantasies of success or power, and a need for constant attention or admiration
6) avoidant personality disorder
A personality disorder characterized by consistent discomfort and restraint in social situations, overwhelming feelings of inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation.
6) dependent personality disorder
A personality disorder characterized by a pattern of clinging and obedience, fear of separation, and an ongoing need to be taken care of.
6) Shizoid Personality Disorder
Pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression. People with this disorder show little desire for social interaction and have poor social skills. NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA
6) paranoid personality disorder
refers to having a feeling of distrust and suspicion in others because their actions are expected to be malevolent
6) obsessive-compulsive disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive obsessions and compulsions
6) Shizotypal Personality Disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions
6) Define Personality disorder
-maladaptive patterns of behavior, cognition and inner experience
-deviating from those that are socially acceptable
6) Describe Eating Disorders
-deadliest
-pathological relationship with food
-affect both physical and mental health
- Most common: anorexia and bulimia
-body dysmorphia
6) bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
6) What would be the cognitive model for bulimia?
-three main cognitive types: what I think about myself, what others will think of me, and what the world will think of me.

1) You know that food is good for you, and so a bulimic person eats because they know not eating is unhealthy.

2) After this action, they start to think that she will get fat if she eats (this would be what you would think about yourself).

3) Then, you go a step further and think that people will stop talking to you if you become fat because others think about fat people as outcasts or less than (this would be what society or others will think of you).

4) Finally, the last cognitive process would be thinking about how you wouldn't be beautiful if you got fat because the world does not think fat is beautiful, which is shown in the ideal body that is globally praised.

5) After these cognitively controversial thoughts get processed, the person does not longer care about their initial idea that food is necessary for life, and they purge the food they just ate.
6) anorexia nervosa
-see themselves as overweight
-avoidance of food
-can cause severe heart problems, the body moves proteins to give to other places.
6) What is the underlying issue in most eating disorders?
The underlying issue of eating disorders is body dysmorphia. Body dysmorphia refers to an obsessive idea that your appearance is severely flawed and which creates an urgency to fix or hide this flaw. From this disorder, people further develop eating disorders as they claim to "fix" the "flaw" of being overweight.
7) Explain the 3 reasons certain stimuli capture our attention
1. We use SELECTIVE ATTENTION to pay attention to certain stimuli because we are surrounded by more stimuli than we can process
2. Our ancestors needed to identify important stimuli quickly SURVIVAL (from threats)
3. EVOLUTION --> inherited (stimuli that our ancestors considered dangrous).
7) State the 9 stimuli that capture our visual attention
1. Salience
2. Motion
3. People
4. Animals
5. Spatial cues
6. High arousal
7. Unpredictability
8. Self-relevance
9. Goal-relevance
7) Stimuli-Salience
The quality by which something stands out from its neighbors:
A) Color: most salient CONTRASTING
B) Orientation
C) Size
7) Stimuli-Motion Perception** highest form of visual perception
1. Motion Onset: Animations (changes from still to moving)
2. Looming Motion: Occurs when stimuli gets larger
3. Animate Motion: unpredictable motion
4. Dynamic imagery: not literal movement only perceived motion (horse in front of fence=static, same horse mid-air=dynamic)
5. Biological Motion: sensitive to the ways our bodies naturally move

**the brain infers the speed and direction of movement based on cues
7) Stimuli-People
A) Faces: faster detecting upright faces
B) Bodies: body shapes>> weird shapes
C) Body Parts: diff brain areas recognize diff parts of the body
7) Stimuli-Animals
-ancestors had to detect animals for survival
-periphery vision
7) Stimuli-Spatial clues
A) Eye gaze: helped ancestors look at what other people were seeing. Also social dominance. detect eyes easily.
B) Head and Body Orientation: if you cannot see the eyes we infer where they are looking at based on head and body.
C) Pointing
D) Arrows
E) Directional words: up, down, left, right
7) Stimuli- High Arousal
only high arousal emotions capture attention (stress, angriness, excitement, and happiness)
-strongest emotions= THREAT AND SEX
-THREAT: brain scans every environment in search for threats (we detect angry faces easier than friendly faces; the reason why we fear snakes even though we barely see them ---evolution)
-SEX: evolutionary purpose of reproduction, sexual stimuli captures our attention
7) Stimuli-Unpredictability
-pay attention to relevant things while dismissing irrelevant information (on one's opinion)
A) Taboo words: capture attention
B) Novelty: quality of being unusual (create a new stimuli, move stimuli to unexpected locations, as for 0.37 cents rather than 50)
7) Stimuli- Self-Revelance
A) NAME: your name catches your attention (hear,see)
B) FACE: your face attracts=personalisation
C) MENTAL INTERACTION: people prefer an image where it looks like you are going to interact with it
7) Stimuli-Goal Relevance
-Bottom up attention: People are more likely to notice your stimulus if they dont have a goal in their mind because you are not focusing on your selective attention.
When you are looking for clothes you may not see a poster on the wall.
-When using top-down attention... we find what we search for. Search for a green stimulus, find green stimulus. You dont notice red stimuli.
7) Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
7) What are heuristics? Why are they useful to us?
a cognitive shortcut, a way of concluding something which doesn't expend too much time or energy

-useful: they reduce the amount of integrated information necessary in decision-making or in judgment, which can save time in dangerous situations and decrease energy consumption so that it can be used somewhere else.
7) HEURISTIC-Confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
7) HEURISTIC-Hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
7) HEURISTIC-Anchoring bias
a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information
7) HEURISTIC-Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event
7) HEURISTIC-Actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
7) HEURISTIC-False concensus
when we assume everyone else agrees with us.
7) HEURISTIC-Halo-effect bias
the observer's perception of one characteristic of an individual dominates other perceptions to result in undifferentiated overall impression, positive (halo), negative ( horns)
7) HEURISTIC-Self-serving bias
the tendency to perceive oneself favorably
7) HEURISTIC-Availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
7) HEURISTIC-Optimism bias
The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us
7) HEURISTIC-Representativeness heuristic
Basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event.
7) Understand different kinds of priming
-semantic
-perceptual/conceptual
-associative
-response
-masked
-kindness
-affective
-cultural
7) Try to explain the Drift Diffusion Model in your own words.
It is basically a model that guesses your possible decision based on how long you look at your options (object A and object B, for example)
7) Define the neuron and its organization
-basic building block of the nervous system
-own internal metabolism (unlike other cells)
1. Axon hillock
2. Dendrite
3. Cell body
4. Nucleus
5. Axon
6. Myelin sheath: insulator that prevents signal loss
7. Node of Ranvier: where the action potential happens
8. Axon terminal
7) What is the purpose of the axon hillock?
The purpose of the axon hillock is to process all of the signals sent by the sending neuron and analyze if the signal is worthy to pass to further neurons by measuring the difference in mV. The signal has to be above -55mV to be able to flow through the neuron. The axon hillock is found at the beginning of the dendrites.
7) Neuron VS. the city
You described the brain as a huge city, a city bigger than any city the Earth holds, and you named it Brainburg. You pointed out that the brain has all these highways and roads that connect to the control centers. These highways and roads are supposedly the pathways that form to send messages to the interested receiver so that we can move, talk, think, breathe, etc. Another similarity would be that cities never shut down the highways, and neither does the brain. Neurons are always communicating. For these reasons, the brain is thought to work like a megalopolis, a set of interconnected cities.

The elements would be:
a. A neuron is an individual brick on a building (~100 billion)
b. Many neurons --> a building with a specific purpose
c. Neurotransmitters --> cars and planes that go between buildings sending the information
7) Explain the synapse
A synapse is a small space in between one neuron's axon terminals and the other neuron's dendrites. The neurotransmitters released by the first neuron's axon terminals stay in the synapse until they find their matching opening at the next neuron's dendrites. When they are finished sending the message to the next neuron, they are taken in by the mother neuron again through a process called reuptake.
7) Describe neurotransmitters and their transport in the synaptic cleft
...
7) Describe different kinds of synapses
...
7) Name and describe the directions in the brain
1. Superior (aka. dorsal)
2. Inferior (aka. ventral)
3. Anterior (aka. rostral)
4. Posterior (aka. caudal)
5. Lateral (towards the sides)
6. Medial (towards the center)
8) Describe Action Potential
-gradients, diffusion
1. Neuron is in its resting phase and is polarized (so charges are separated). It needs a signal bigger than -55mV to pass the threshold and fire the action potential.
2. When the signal passes the threshold, depolarization happens. Sodium ion flow into the cell and the depolarization shoots +40mV.
3. After depolarization comes repolarization, which is when the cell returns to its resting state. So, Potassium ions flow out of the cell.
4. It overshoots and the polarization reaches -100mV instead of -70mV= hyperpolarization.
5. The movement of the potassium and sodium ions lead to a disbalance of charges, which is balanced by the sodium-potassium pump until it reaches -70mV again.
8) How is an action potential's strength determined?
By how many action potentials per second occur.
frequency
8) What is the resting membrane potential? Which threshold does it have to cross to become an action potential?
The resting membrane potential refers to the mV of the neuron as compared to its surroundings when it is unbothered with any trigger. The resting membrane potential is around -70mV.

A trigger or sensation has to be strong to get the difference between the neuron and the outside to be above -55mV. This is the threshold the stimulus has to cross to create an action potential.
8) What is synaptic pruning?
Synaptic pruning is a process your brain does to cut off non-important or unused information to make space for new neural connections.
8) How does synaptic pruning contribute to ADHD and autism?
This process begins at birth. It contributes to ADHD and autism because it is believed that they are caused by too little pruning.
8) Explain the basics of measurements in neuroscience: BEHAVIORAL
choice, preference, observed behavior, questionnaire, whatever you ask participants to give you
-not precise
(ex. intelligence or personality tests)
the trouble of reliability and validity
8) Explain the basics of measurements in neuroscience: PHYSIOLOGICAL
A) Anatomical: takes anatomical scan or photo of the brain
B) Functional: follows how the brain activates through a certain stimulus
(ex. weight, voltage)
8) Explain the basic measurement and experimental devices used in neuroscience research: fMRI
-functional magnetic resonance imaging
-FUNCTIONAL measurement (follows activation in the brain)
1. Create anatomical scan
2. Track activity over anatomical scan following BLOOD
-----BOLD signal (blood-oxygenation level-dependent response)
-when a part of the brain is activated, it needs more oxygen, which brings more blood to carry the oxygen. Oxygenated blood is more magnetic than normal blood so it is easily picked up by the machine.
8) Limitation of fMRI (BOLD)
-NOT measure of neural activity but of METABOLIC activity
-6 secs delayed
8) Explain the basic measurement and experimental devices used in neuroscience research: EEG
-electroencephalogram
-surface of the brain only
-metal discs that detect electrical activity in FREQUENCIES (hz)
-wavy lines
-set up is complicated, specific coordinates for each disc
8) What are the types of brain waves the EEG records?
Beta--> Awake with mental activity
Alpha--> Awake and resting
Theta--> Sleeping
Delta--> Deep sleep
8) Explain the basic measurement and experimental devices used in neuroscience research: TMS
-transcranial magnetic stimulation
-NOT a measurement, MANIPULATION INSTRUMENT
- Activates/deactivates certain parts of the brain
-magnetic field to create impulses
-very local
-useful for depression
-TMS stimulation of the motor cortex
8) Explain the basic measurement and experimental devices used in neuroscience research: CT or CAT scan
-computerized tomography
-ANATOMICAL imaging
-uses X-RAYS to scan multiple slices of the brain
-usually used for tumors or physical trumas in brain
-not too detailed
-allows 3D models of the brain and other structures
8) Explain the basic measurement and experimental devices used in neuroscience research: MRI
-magnetic resonance imaging
-ANATOMICAL imaging
1. put subject in a really strong magnetic field
2. magnetic field aligns almost all protons in hydrogen (from water) in the tissue with the field
3. radio pulse makes the protons line perfectly opposite to the magnetic field
4. when the pulse is gone, the protons return and they release an electron, this gets picked up by a sensor in the machine
5. takes picture of the electrons coming back from all of this
9) Explain phenomenal and access consciousness
Access consciousness is your working memory. It is basically what you are thinking and the information you are using at a present moment.
Phenomenal consciousness is your subjective experience of a present moment.
9) Explain the hard problem of consiousness
The hard problem of consciousness is the impossibility of explaining the relationship between physical phenomena and how that gives rise to experience.
-In other words, that 'our intelligence is wrongly designed to understand consciousness', meaning that we can study the mind and its physical processes but understanding our own awareness will be 'forever beyond our conceptual grasp'.
9) What is the binding problem and how do gamma oscillations offer an explanation for it?
-The binding problem is the process by which the brain is able to perceive and identify an object regardless of its movement or perspective, through the use of sensory input.

-Gamma oscillations offer an explanation as found in EEG studies these are in charge of visual perception.

-These are the fastest frequency waves our brain can work in, meaning they are the fastest form of information transmission.
9) Explain Feature Integration Theory
The theory is an explanation of how we connect different features of an object to comprehend what the object is regardless of perspective or movement.

-Stage 1: Preattentive stage (Analyze the object)
Different brain parts gather information on the basic visual features of the object (color, shape, movement). We are not conscious of this process.

-Stage 2: Focused Attention Stage (Combine features)
The person merges the information from the various brain areas to perceive the whole object. This stage requires attention and intention to select one object to focus on.
9) Explain Information Integration Theory
It is a theory that tries to explain consciousness through the use of sensory modalities. Basically, consciousness is our capability of making sense of different bits of information to create a unified experience stored in a single place.

There are 5 components:
1. Intrinsic Experience- the subjective experience (personal and cannot be measured)
2. Composition- the subelements of the experience (scree, pixels, etc)
3. Information- the unique was as to why this experience differs from other experiences
4. Exclusion- understanding that an experience is definite, it encapsulates a certain period of time and is limited in content as well
5. Integration- you identify experiences by adding up things together, not individually. You see a car with its headlights on, not a car and lights as completely separate entities.
9) Explain how split-brain patients are useful for studying psychology
Useful for studying psychology because researchers can study both hemispheres separately which is not possible in a normal brain due to how they work together all the time. With these patients, we can investigate what each hemisphere is responsible of and how they merge their information to form thoughts/concepts/decisions/etc.

Patients usually get their corpus callosum cut (commissurotomy) as a solution to severe epilepsy (a debilitating disease caused by info overload in the white matter pathways)
9) Describe one experiment with split-brain patients. How do we conclude that they have two separate consciousnesses?
Two images were flashed simultaneously to each eye individually. The right eye saw a bottle, and the left saw a hammer.
When the patients were asked what they saw and to point it out on a booklet:
- they say they saw a bottle
-they point out to the image of the hammer
After an hour, the left hemisphere still couldn't say what the right hemisphere saw, but the right hemisphere could show it.

In conclusion, these people have a doubling of conscious awareness because each hemisphere has its own separate and private sensations. They have no accessibility to the other hemisphere's memories or actions.
9) What is white matter? Decussation of pathways? Corpus callosum? RELATE TO SPLIT BRAIN PATIENTS
-White matter: "highways" of the brain--white bc of the myelin. serves to transport information through the major centers quickly
-Decussation of pathways: body right=brain left; body left=brain right
- Corpus callosum: connects the two hemispheres
9) Brocca's Area vs. Wernicke's Area
Brocca's area: speech formation RIGHT
Wernicke's are: comprehension of speech LEFT
9) Differentiate how the left and the right hemisphere are actually different
LEFT: Analytical thought, detail-oriented, sequencing, rationality, verbal, cautious, planning, math/science, logic, the right vision, right motor skills

RIGHT: Intuitive though, holistic, random sequencing, emotionality, non-verbal, adventurous, impulse, creativity, imagination, left vision, left motor cortex
9) Explain the dominance between the hemispheres
The left hemisphere is usually more dominant than the right hemisphere and makes "the final decision".
The right also computes a solution and tells the motor cortex, but this is usually over-run by the left's.

-found in EEG--> huge spike of alpha waves (slow activity) from the left to the right side during decision making.
9) Explain the Libet study of consciousness-veto
-controversial
-EEG machine

1) the participants were given the choice to move their finger or not.
-asked to focus on their thought process and when they made the decision to move the finger, if they wanted to.

2) 500miliseconds before the person initiated the movement there was a huge spike in brain waves.
-This was called Readiness Potential (RP).

3) Then, 200ms before movement initiation --> the subject became consciously aware that they had made a decision (to move or not move).
-This is when "the urge to move" occurs.

4) There is 350ms of lag between when the brain decides and when the person becomes conscious of the decision.

5) For those who did not choose to move, the brain waves still spiked at the -500ms point.
- Opens an idea claiming that Readiness potential basically is the brain preparing for possible scenarios. -In other words, the person can choose not to move regardless of the brain preparation, this is called a conscious veto.

This can be used as POTENTIAL PROOF to say that FREE WILL EXISTS.
9) Define Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs)
BCI --> brain-computer interfaces

-direct communication pathway that transfers signals from the brain to an external device.

-commonly used for research, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions.

-BCIs can be either invasive or non-invasive.
9) What makes a BCI (non-)invasive?
-In non-invasive BCIs, there are no surgical procedures needed to record brain activity. In other words, there are no implants attached to the brain.

-It is beneficial because it's easier but it's less precise.

-EEG or also fMRI (BOLD signal)
9) How is a BCI invasive?
-Implant electrodes directly into the brain tissue.
-Surgery

-Single unit activity: action potentials of single neurons recorded with microelectrodes
-Multi unit activity: record several with several electrodes
-Local field potentials: single microelectrode next to a tissue...measure changes in voltage around the tissue
9) What do local field potentials measure in invasive BCIs?
The local field potentials of invasive BCI measure changes in voltage in tissue. In other words, it measures the neurons' action potentials as they pass through the tissue.
9) What do local field potentials measure?
The local field potentials of invasive BCI measure changes in voltage in tissue. In other words, it measures the neurons' action potentials as they pass through the tissue.
9) What is ECoG and how is it different from EEG?
- ECoG is much more precise than the EEG.

- The ECoG consists of attaching the electrodes to the cortex of the brain which means it will be much more sensitive to changes in frequency. On the other hand, the EEG only uses electrodes on the surface of the head.

- They both measure frequencies from the brain.
9) Explain the study from Sorger on how fMRI is used to "read minds"
Researchers figured this out through an experiment consisting of two imagination tasks.

1. Motor related: imagine cutting a paper

2. Spatial imagery: imagine you in your beach house
Through the fMRI researchers could tell that different parts of the brain lit up.

The experiment showed above uses the same principles, but with letters and tasks.
You would look at the chart and follow the task and time instructions for each letter so that the researcher could know which letter you chose.

Task 1: motor imagery= cutting paper
Task 2: mental calculation= 2+2=4
Task 3: inner speech= mentally saying... today I had a normal day blablabla
9) Explain how BCIs are used in therapeutic contexts, particularily to help people with tretraplegia ARTICLE EXAMPLE
-96-channel intracortical microelectrodes were implanted in the motor cortex

I think they knew where because there is a specific area in the motor cortex whose job is to move the arm, so that would be the most reasonable place to implant the electrodes.

The man's learning in how to use the artificial arm was highly effective. He was able to move the prosthetic freely by the second day.
10)
a. How did the researchers of coma patients manage to establish communication with them?
b. Explain the experimental setup.
c. Which two task did they use to correspond to which two answers? d. What were the patients instructed to do?
e. How many patients did they establish communication with?
...
10) What is a cognitive architecture?
...
10) What is an expert system?
...
10) What are the advantages to using AI systems for psychotherapy?
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10)
a. What is TMS?
b. What does it stand for and what does it do?
c. How can it help us determine whether an area of the brain is active or inactive on a certain process?
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10)
a. What is neurofeedback?
b. How does it work for treating ADHD?
...
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